Selective Depletion of Microglia from Cerebellar Granule Cell Cultures Using L-leucine Methyl Ester.

Microglia, the resident immunocompetent cells of the CNS, play multifaceted roles in modulating and controlling neuronal function, as well as mediating innate immunity. Primary rodent cell culture models have greatly advanced our understanding of neuronal-glial interactions, but only recently have methods to specifically eliminate microglia from mixed cultures been utilized. One such technique - described here - is the use of L-leucine methyl ester, a lysomotropic agent that is internalized by macrophages and microglia, wherein it causes lysosomal disruption and subsequent apoptosis(13,14). Experiments using L-leucine methyl ester have the power to identify the contribution of microglia to the surrounding cellular environment under diverse culture conditions. Using a protocol optimized in our laboratory, we describe how to eliminate microglia from P5 rodent cerebellar granule cell culture. This approach allows one to assess the relative impact of microglia on experimental data, as well as determine whether microglia are playing a neuroprotective or neurotoxic role in culture models of neurological conditions, such as stroke, Alzheimer's or Parkinson's disease.

Glia: guardians, gluttons, or guides for the maintenance of neuronal connectivity?

An emerging aspect of neuronal-glial interactions is the connection glial cells have to synapses. Mounting research now suggests a far more intimate relationship than previously recognized. Moreover, the current evidence implicating synapse loss in neurodegenerative disease etiology is overwhelming, but the role of glia in the process of synaptic degeneration has only recently been considered in earnest. Each main class of glial cell, including astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia, performs crucial and multifaceted roles in the maintenance of synaptic function and excitability. As such, aging and/or neuronal stress from disease-related misfolded proteins may involve disruption of multiple non-cell-autonomous synaptic support systems that are mediated by neighboring glia. In addition, glial cell activation induced by injury, ischemia, or neurodegeneration is thought to greatly alter the behavior of glial cells toward neuronal synapses, suggesting that neuroinflammation potentially contributes to synapse loss primarily mediated by altered glial functions. This review discusses recent evidence highlighting novel roles for glial cells at neuronal synapses and in the maintenance of neuronal connectivity, focusing primarily on their implications for neurodegenerative disease research.

Microglial p53 activation is detrimental to neuronal synapses during activation-induced inflammation: Implications for neurodegeneration.

P53 is a tumour suppressor protein thought to be primarily involved in cancer biology, but recent evidence suggests it may also coordinate novel functions in the CNS, including mediation of pathways underlying neurodegenerative disease. In microglia, the resident immune cells of the brain, p53 activity can promote an activation-induced pro-inflammatory phenotype Jayadev et al. (2011) [1], as well as neurodegeneration Davenport et al. (2010) [2]. Synapse degeneration is one of the earliest pathological events in many chronic neurodegenerative diseases Conforti et al. (2007) and Clare et al. (2010) [3,4] and may be influenced by early microglial responses. Here we examined synaptic properties of neurons following modulation of p53 activity in rat microglia exposed to inflammatory stimuli. A significant reduction in the expression of the neuronal synaptic markers synaptophysin and drebrin, occurred following microglial activation and was seen prior to any visible signs of neuronal cell death, including neuronal cleaved caspase-3 activation. This synaptic marker loss together with microglial secretion of the inflammatory cytokines tumour necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and interleukin 1-ß (IL-1ß) was abolished by the removal of microglia or inhibition of microglial p53 activation. These results suggest that transcriptional-dependent p53 activities in microglia may drive a non-cell autonomous process of synaptic degeneration in neurons during neuroinflammatory degenerative diseases.

GTP binding and intramolecular regulation by the ROC domain of Death Associated Protein Kinase 1.

The ROCO proteins are a family of large, multidomain proteins characterised by the presence of a Ras of complex proteins (ROC) domain followed by a COR, or C-terminal of ROC, domain. It has previously been shown that the ROC domain of the human ROCO protein Leucine Rich Repeat Kinase 2 (LRRK2) controls its kinase activity. Here, the ability of the ROC domain of another human ROCO protein, Death Associated Protein Kinase 1 (DAPK1), to bind GTP and control its kinase activity has been evaluated. In contrast to LRRK2, loss of GTP binding by DAPK1 does not result in loss of kinase activity, instead acting to modulate this activity. These data highlight the ROC domain of DAPK1 as a target for modifiers of this proteins function, and casts light on the role of ROC domains as intramolecular regulators in complex proteins with implications for a broad range of human diseases.

Emerging roles of p53 in glial cell function in health and disease.

Emerging evidence suggests that p53, a tumor suppressor protein primarily involved in cancer biology, coordinates a wide range of novel functions in the CNS including the mediation of pathways underlying neurodegenerative disease pathogenesis. Moreover, an evolving concept in cell and molecular neuroscience is that glial cells are far more fundamental to disease progression than previously thought, which may occur via a noncell-autonomous mechanism that is heavily dependent on p53 activities. As a crucial hub connecting many intracellular control pathways, including cell-cycle control and apoptosis, p53 is ideally placed to coordinate the cellular response to a range of stresses. Although neurodegenerative diseases each display a distinct and diverse molecular pathology, apoptosis is a widespread hallmark feature and the multimodal capacity of the p53 system to orchestrate apoptosis and glial cell behavior highlights p53 as a potential unifying target for therapeutic intervention in neurodegeneration.