Early events in amyloid-ß self-assembly probed by time-resolved solid state NMR and light scattering.

Self-assembly of amyloid-ß peptides leads to oligomers, protofibrils, and fibrils that are likely instigators of neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease. We report results of time-resolved solid state nuclear magnetic resonance (ssNMR) and light scattering experiments on 40-residue amyloid-ß (Aß40) that provide structural information for oligomers that form on time scales from 0.7 ms to 1.0 h after initiation of self-assembly by a rapid pH drop. Low-temperature ssNMR spectra of freeze-trapped intermediates indicate that ß-strand conformations within and contacts between the two main hydrophobic segments of Aß40 develop within 1 ms, while light scattering data imply a primarily monomeric state up to 5 ms. Intermolecular contacts involving residues 18 and 33 develop within 0.5 s, at which time Aß40 is approximately octameric. These contacts argue against ß-sheet organizations resembling those found previously in protofibrils and fibrils. Only minor changes in the Aß40 conformational distribution are detected as larger assemblies develop.

Time-resolved solid state NMR of biomolecular processes with millisecond time resolution.

We review recent efforts to develop and apply an experimental approach to the structural characterization of transient intermediate states in biomolecular processes that involve large changes in molecular conformation or assembly state. This approach depends on solid state nuclear magnetic resonance (ssNMR) measurements that are performed at very low temperatures, typically 25-30 K, with signal enhancements from dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP). This approach also involves novel technology for initiating the process of interest, either by rapid mixing of two solutions or by a rapid inverse temperature jump, and for rapid freezing to trap intermediate states. Initiation by rapid mixing or an inverse temperature jump can be accomplished in approximately-one millisecond. Freezing can be accomplished in approximately 100 microseconds. Thus, millisecond time resolution can be achieved. Recent applications to the process by which the biologically essential calcium sensor protein calmodulin forms a complex with one of its target proteins and the process by which the bee venom peptide melittin converts from an unstructured monomeric state to a helical, tetrameric state after a rapid change in pH or temperature are described briefly. Future applications of millisecond time-resolved ssNMR are also discussed briefly.

Nitroxide-based triradical dopants for efficient low-temperature dynamic nuclear polarization in aqueous solutions over a broad pH range.

Dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) can provide substantial sensitivity enhancements in solid state nuclear magnetic resonance (ssNMR) measurements on frozen solutions, thereby enabling experiments that would otherwise be impractical. Previous work has shown that nitroxide-based triradical compounds are particularly effective as dopants in DNP-enhanced measurements at moderate magic-angle spinning frequencies and moderate magnetic field strengths, generally leading to a more rapid build-up of nuclear spin polarizations under microwave irradiation than the more common biradical dopants at the same electron spin concentrations. Here we report the synthesis and DNP performance at 25 K and 9.41 T for two new triradical compounds, sulfoacetyl-DOTOPA and PEG12-DOTOPA. Under our experimental conditions, these compounds exhibit ssNMR signal enhancements and DNP build-up times that are nearly identical to those of previously described triradical dopants. Moreover, these compounds have high solubility in aqueous buffers and water/glycerol mixtures at both acidic and basic pH values, making them useful in a wide variety of experiments on biomolecular systems.

Quantitative Agreement between Conformational Substates of Holo Calcium-Loaded Calmodulin Detected by Double Electron-Electron Resonance EPR and Predicted by Molecular Dynamics Simulations.

Calcium-loaded calmodulin (CaM/4Ca2+) comprises two domains that undergo rigid body reorientation from a predominantly extended conformation to a compact one upon binding target peptides. A recent replica-exchange molecular dynamics (MD) simulation on holo CaM/4Ca2+ suggested the existence of distinct structural clusters (substates) along the path from extended to compact conformers in the absence of substrates. Here, we experimentally demonstrate the existence of CaM/4Ca2+ substates trapped in local minima by three freezing/annealing regimes (slow, 40 s; intermediate, 1.5 s; fast, 0.5 ms) using pulsed Q-band double electron-electron resonance (DEER) EPR spectroscopy to measure interdomain distances between nitroxide spin-labels positioned at A17C and A128C in the N- and C-terminal domains, respectively. The DEER echo curves were directly fit to population-optimized P(r) pairwise distance distributions calculated from the coordinates of the MD clusters and compact crystal structure. DEER data on fully deuterated CaM/4Ca2+ were acquired at multiple values of the second echo period (10-35 µs) and analyzed globally to eliminate instrumental and overfitting artifacts and ensure accurate populations, peak positions, and widths. The DEER data for all three freezing regimes are quantitatively accounted for within experimental error by 5-6 distinct conformers comprising a predominantly populated extended form (60-75%) and progressively more compact states whose populations decrease as the degree of compactness increases. The shortest interdomain separation is found in the compact crystal structure, which has an occupancy of 4-6%. Thus, CaM/4Ca2+ samples high energy local minima comprising a few discrete substates of increasing compactness in a rugged energy landscape.

Time-resolved DEER EPR and solid-state NMR afford kinetic and structural elucidation of substrate binding to Ca2+-ligated calmodulin.

Recent advances in rapid mixing and freeze quenching have opened the path for time-resolved electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR)-based double electron-electron resonance (DEER) and solid-state NMR of protein-substrate interactions. DEER, in conjunction with phase memory time filtering to quantitatively extract species populations, permits monitoring time-dependent probability distance distributions between pairs of spin labels, while solid-state NMR provides quantitative residue-specific information on the appearance of structural order and the development of intermolecular contacts between substrate and protein. Here, we demonstrate the power of these combined approaches to unravel the kinetic and structural pathways in the binding of the intrinsically disordered peptide substrate (M13) derived from myosin light-chain kinase to the universal eukaryotic calcium regulator, calmodulin. Global kinetic analysis of the data reveals coupled folding and binding of the peptide associated with large spatial rearrangements of the two domains of calmodulin. The initial binding events involve a bifurcating pathway in which the M13 peptide associates via either its N- or C-terminal regions with the C- or N-terminal domains, respectively, of calmodulin/4Ca2+ to yield two extended "encounter" complexes, states A and A*, without conformational ordering of M13. State A is immediately converted to the final compact complex, state C, on a timescale τ ≤ 600 µs. State A*, however, only reaches the final complex via a collapsed intermediate B (τ ∼ 1.5 to 2.5 ms), in which the peptide is only partially ordered and not all intermolecular contacts are formed. State B then undergoes a relatively slow (τ ∼ 7 to 18 ms) conformational rearrangement to state C.

Curvature of the Retroviral Capsid Assembly Is Modulated by a Molecular Switch.

During the maturation step, the retroviral capsid proteins (CAs) assemble into polymorphic capsids. Their acute curvature is largely determined by 12 pentamers inserted into the hexameric lattice. However, how the CA switches its conformation to control assembly curvature remains unclear. We report the high-resolution structural model of the Rous sarcoma virus (RSV) CA T = 1 capsid, established by molecular dynamics simulations combining solid-state NMR and prior cryoelectron tomography restraints. Comparing this with our previous model of the RSV CA tubular assembly, we identify the key residues for dictating the incorporation of acute curvatures. These residues undergo large torsion angle changes, resulting in a 34° rotation of the C-terminal domain relative to its N-terminal domain around the flexible interdomain linker, without substantial changes of either the conformation of individual domains or the assembly contact interfaces. This knowledge provides new insights to help decipher the mechanism of the retroviral capsid assembly.

Millisecond Time-Resolved Solid-State NMR Reveals a Two-Stage Molecular Mechanism for Formation of Complexes between Calmodulin and a Target Peptide from Myosin Light Chain Kinase.

Calmodulin (CaM) mediates a wide range of biological responses to changes in intracellular Ca2+ concentrations through its calcium-dependent binding affinities to numerous target proteins. Binding of two Ca2+ ions to each of the two four-helix-bundle domains of CaM results in major conformational changes that create a potential binding site for the CaM binding domain of a target protein, which also undergoes major conformational changes to form the complex with CaM. Details of the molecular mechanism of complex formation are not well established, despite numerous structural, spectroscopic, thermodynamic, and kinetic studies. Here, we report a study of the process by which the 26-residue peptide M13, which represents the CaM binding domain of skeletal muscle myosin light chain kinase, forms a complex with CaM in the presence of excess Ca2+ on the millisecond time scale. Our experiments use a combination of selective 13C labeling of CaM and M13, rapid mixing of CaM solutions with M13/Ca2+ solutions, rapid freeze-quenching of the mixed solutions, and low-temperature solid state nuclear magnetic resonance (ssNMR) enhanced by dynamic nuclear polarization. From measurements of the dependence of 2D 13C-13C ssNMR spectra on the time between mixing and freezing, we find that the N-terminal portion of M13 converts from a conformationally disordered state to an α-helix and develops contacts with the C-terminal domain of CaM in about 2 ms. The C-terminal portion of M13 becomes α-helical and develops contacts with the N-terminal domain of CaM more slowly, in about 8 ms. The level of structural order in the CaM/M13/Ca2+ complexes, indicated by 13C ssNMR line widths, continues to increase beyond 27 ms.

Submillisecond Freezing Permits Cryoprotectant-Free EPR Double Electron-Electron Resonance Spectroscopy.

Double electron-electron resonance (DEER) EPR spectroscopy is a powerful method for obtaining distance distributions between pairs of engineered nitroxide spin-labels in proteins and other biological macromolecules. These measurements require the use of cryogenic temperatures (77 K or less) to prolong the phase memory relaxation time (Tm ) sufficiently to enable detection of a DEER echo curve. Generally, a cryoprotectant such as glycerol is added to protein samples to facilitate glass formation and avoid protein clustering (which can result in a large decrease in Tm ) during relatively slow flash freezing in liquid N2 . However, cryoprotectants are osmolytes and can influence protein folding/unfolding equilibria, as well as species populations in weak multimeric systems. Here we show that submillisecond rapid freezing, achieved by high velocity spraying of the sample onto a rapidly spinning, liquid nitrogen cooled copper disc obviates the requirement for cryoprotectants and permits high quality DEER data to be obtained in absence of glycerol. We demonstrate this approach on five different protein systems: protein A, the metastable drkN SH3 domain, urea-unfolded drkN SH3, HIV-1 reverse transcriptase, and the transmembrane domain of HIV-1 gp41 in lipid bicelles.

Succinyl-DOTOPA: An effective triradical dopant for low-temperature dynamic nuclear polarization with high solubility in aqueous solvent mixtures at neutral pH.

We report the synthesis of the nitroxide-based triradical compound succinyl-DOTOPA and the characterization of its performance as a dopant for dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) experiments in frozen solutions at low temperatures. Compared with previously described DOTOPA derivatives, succinyl-DOTOPA has substantially greater solubility in glycerol/water mixtures with pH > 4 and therefore has wider applicability. Solid state nuclear magnetic resonance (ssNMR) measurements at 9.39 T and 25 K, with magic-angle spinning at 7.00 kHz, show that build-up times of DNP-enhanced, cross-polarized 13C ssNMR signals are shorter and that signal amplitudes are larger for glycerol/water solutions of L-proline containing succinyl-DOTOPA than for solutions containing the biradical AMUPol, with electron spin concentrations of 15 mM or 30 mM, resulting in greater net sensitivity gains from DNP. In similar measurements at 90 K, AMUPol yields greater net sensitivity, apparently due to its longer electron spin-lattice and spin-spin relaxation times. One- and two-dimensional 13C ssNMR measurements at 25 K on the complex of the 27-residue peptide M13 with the calcium-sensing protein calmodulin, in glycerol/water with 10 mM succinyl-DOTOPA, demonstrate the utility of this compound in DNP-enhanced ssNMR studies of biomolecular systems.

Application of millisecond time-resolved solid state NMR to the kinetics and mechanism of melittin self-assembly.

Common experimental approaches for characterizing structural conversion processes such as protein folding and self-assembly do not report on all aspects of the evolution from an initial state to the final state. Here, we demonstrate an approach that is based on rapid mixing, freeze-trapping, and low-temperature solid-state NMR (ssNMR) with signal enhancements from dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP). Experiments on the folding and tetramerization of the 26-residue peptide melittin following a rapid pH jump show that multiple aspects of molecular structure can be followed with millisecond time resolution, including secondary structure at specific isotopically labeled sites, intramolecular and intermolecular contacts between specific pairs of labeled residues, and overall structural order. DNP-enhanced ssNMR data reveal that conversion of conformationally disordered melittin monomers at low pH to α-helical conformations at neutral pH occurs on nearly the same timescale as formation of antiparallel melittin dimers, about 6 to 9 ms for 0.3 mM melittin at 24 °C in aqueous solution containing 20% (vol/vol) glycerol and 75 mM sodium phosphate. Although stopped-flow fluorescence data suggest that melittin tetramers form quickly after dimerization, ssNMR spectra show that full structural order within melittin tetramers develops more slowly, in ∼60 ms. Time-resolved ssNMR is likely to find many applications to biomolecular structural conversion processes, including early stages of amyloid formation, viral capsid formation, and protein-protein recognition.

Structural Model of the Tubular Assembly of the Rous Sarcoma Virus Capsid Protein.

The orthoretroviral capsid protein (CA) assembles into polymorphic capsids, whose architecture, assembly, and stability are still being investigated. The N-terminal and C-terminal domains of CA (NTD and CTD, respectively) engage in both homotypic and heterotypic interactions to create the capsid. Hexameric turrets formed by the NTD decorate the majority of the capsid surface. We report nearly complete solid-state NMR (ssNMR) resonance assignments of Rous sarcoma virus (RSV) CA, assembled into hexamer tubes that mimic the authentic capsid. The ssNMR assignments show that, upon assembly, large conformational changes occur in loops connecting helices, as well as the short 310 helix initiating the CTD. The interdomain linker becomes statically disordered. Combining constraints from ssNMR and cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM), we establish an atomic resolution model of the RSV CA tubular assembly using molecular dynamics flexible fitting (MDFF) simulations. On the basis of comparison of this MDFF model with an earlier-derived crystallographic model for the planar assembly, the induction of curvature into the RSV CA hexamer lattice arises predominantly from reconfiguration of the NTD-CTD and CTD trimer interfaces. The CTD dimer and CTD trimer interfaces are also intrinsically variable. Hence, deformation of the CA hexamer lattice results from the variable displacement of the CTDs that surround each hexameric turret. Pervasive H-bonding is found at all interdomain interfaces, which may contribute to their malleability. Finally, we find helices at the interfaces of HIV and RSV CA assemblies have very different contact angles, which may reflect differences in the capsid assembly pathway for these viruses.

Construction of a novel coarse grain model for simulations of HIV capsid assembly to capture the backbone structure and inter-domain motions in solution.

We show the construction of a novel coarse grain model for simulations of HIV capsid assembly based on four structural models of HIV capsid proteins: isolated hexamer 3H47.pdb, tubular assembly 3J34.pdb, isolated pentamer 3P05.pdb and C-terminus dimer 2KOD.pdb. The data demonstrates the derivation of inter-domain motions from all atom Molecular Dynamics simulations and comparison with the motions derived from the analysis of solution NMR results defined in 2M8L.pdb. Snapshots from a representative Monte Carlo simulation with 128 dimeric subunit proteins based on 3J34.pdb are shown in addition to the quantitative analysis of its assembly pathway. Movies of the assembly process are compiled with snapshots of representative simulations of four structural models. The methods and data in this article were utilized in Qiao et al. (in press) [1] to probe the mechanism of polymorphism and curvature control of HIV capsid assembly.

Mechanism of polymorphism and curvature of HIV capsid assemblies probed by 3D simulations with a novel coarse grain model.

BACKGROUND: During the maturation process, HIV capsid proteins self-assemble into polymorphic capsids. The strong polymorphism precludes high resolution structural characterization under in vivo conditions. In spite of the determination of structural models for various in vitro assemblies of HIV capsid proteins, the assembly mechanism is still not well-understood. METHODS: We report 3D simulations of HIV capsid proteins by a novel coarse grain model that captures the backbone of the rigid segments in the protein accurately. The effects of protein dynamics on assembly are emulated by a static ensemble of subunits in conformations derived from molecular dynamics simulation. RESULTS: We show that HIV capsid proteins robustly assemble into hexameric lattices in a range of conditions where trimers of dimeric subunits are the dominant oligomeric intermediates. Variations of hexameric lattice curvatures are observed in simulations with subunits of variable inter-domain orientations mimicking the conformation distribution in solution. Simulations with subunits based on pentameric structural models lead to assembly of sharp curved structures resembling the tips of authentic HIV capsids, along a distinct pathway populated by tetramers and pentamers with the characteristic quasi-equivalency of viral capsids. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that the polymorphism assembly is triggered by the inter-domain dynamics of HIV capsid proteins in solution. The assembly of highly curved structures arises from proteins in conformation with a highly specific inter-domain orientation. SIGNIFICANCE: Our work proposes a mechanism of HIV capsid assembly based on available structural data, which can be readily verified. Our model can be applied to other large biomolecular assemblies.

Morphology-Dependent HIV-Enhancing Effect of Semen-Derived Enhancer of Viral Infection.

PAP248-286 is a 39-residue fragment (residues 248 to 286) derived from protease cleavage of prostatic acidic phosphatase in semen. The amyloid fibrils formed in vitro by PAP248-286 can dramatically enhance human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. To our knowledge, we present the first report that the HIV-enhancing potency of fibrils formed by PAP248-286 is morphology dependent. We identified pleomorphic fibrils by transmission electron microscopy in two buffer conditions. Our solid-state NMR data showed that these fibrils consist of molecules in distinct conformations. In agreement with NMR, fluorescence measurements confirmed that they are assembled along different pathways, with distinct molecular structures. Furthermore, our cell-based infectivity tests detected distinct HIV-enhancing potencies for fibrils in distinct morphologies. In addition, our transmission electron microscopy and NMR results showed that semen-derived enhancer of viral infection fibrils formed in sodium bicarbonate buffer remain stable over time, but semen-derived enhancer of viral infection fibrils formed in phosphate buffered saline keep evolving after the initial 7 days incubation period. Given time, most of the assemblies in phosphate buffered saline will turn into elongated thin fibrils. They have similar secondary structure but different packing than thin fibrils formed initially after 7 days incubation.

Pyroglutamylated amyloid-ß peptide reverses cross ß-sheets by a prion-like mechanism.

The amyloid hypothesis causatively relates the fibrillar deposits of amyloid ß peptide (Aß) to Alzheimer's disease (AD). More recent data, however, identify the soluble oligomers as the major cytotoxic entities. Pyroglutamylated Aß (pE-Aß) is present in AD brains and exerts augmented neurotoxicity, which is believed to result from its higher ß-sheet propensity and faster fibrillization. While this concept is based on a set of experimental results, others have reported similar ß-sheet contents in unmodified and pyroglutamylated Aß, and slower aggregation of pE-Aß as compared to unmodified Aß, leaving the issue unresolved. Here, we assess the structural differences between Aß and pE-Aß peptides that may underlie their distinct cytotoxicities. Transmission electron microscopy identifies a larger number of prefibrillar aggregates of pE-Aß at early stages of aggregation and suggests that pE-Aß affects the fibrillogenesis even at low molar fractions. Circular dichroism and FTIR data indicate that while the unmodified Aß readily forms ß-sheet fibrils in aqueous media, pE-Aß displays increased α-helical and decreased ß-sheet propensity. Moreover, isotope-edited FTIR spectroscopy shows that pE-Aß reverses ß-sheet formation and hence fibrillogenesis of the unmodified Aß peptide via a prion-like mechanism. These data provide a novel structural mechanism for pE-Aß hypertoxicity; pE-Aß undergoes faster formation of prefibrillar aggregates due to its increased hydrophobicity, thus shifting the initial stages of fibrillogenesis toward smaller, hypertoxic oligomers of partial α-helical structure.

Superb resolution and contrast of transmission electron microscopy images of unstained biological samples on graphene-coated grids.

BACKGROUND: In standard transmission electron microscopy (TEM), biological samples are supported on carbon films of nanometer thickness. Due to the similar electron scattering of protein samples and graphite supports, high quality images with structural details are obtained primarily by staining with heavy metals. METHODS: Single-layered graphene is used to support the protein self-assemblies of different molecular weights for qualitative and quantitative characterizations. RESULTS: We show unprecedented high resolution and contrast images of unstained samples on graphene on a low-end TEM. We show for the first time that the resolution and contrast of TEM images of unstained biological samples with high packing density in their native states supported on graphene can be comparable or superior to uranyl acetate-stained TEM images. CONCLUSION: Our results demonstrate a novel technique for TEM structural characterization to circumvent the potential artifacts caused by staining agents without sacrificing image resolution or contrast, and eliminate the need for toxic metals. Moreover, this technique better preserves sample integrity for quantitative characterization by dark-field imaging with reduced beam damage. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE: This technique can be an effective alternative for bright-field qualitative characterization of biological samples with high packing density and those not amenable to the standard negative staining technique, in addition to providing high quality dark-field unstained images at reduced radiation damage to determine quantitative structural information of biological samples.

Surface characterization of carbon nanotubes irradiated by electron beam.

Multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were irradiated by high-energy electron beams with different dosing amounts, and the physical properties including morphology and local surface structure were investigated by using a gas adsorption isotherm apparatus. The layering properties of argon on MWCNTs were measured from 65 to 80 K, and the interaction of argon on the surface was analyzed. Little change of surface structure between unirradiated and irradiated MWCNT samples was found. Interestingly, broader isotherm steps from the electron beam irradiated samples were found, although the amount of gas molecules forming the first atomic layer remains the same for the samples before and after irradiating the beams. This observation was supported by calculated values of the two-dimensional compressibility. Our combined results suggest that dosing of the electron beam on the carbon nanotubes induced the local surface defects, while no structural modification occurs.