The Influence of Energy Balance, Lipolysis and Ketogenesis on Metabolic Adaptation in Cows Milked Twice and Three Times Daily.

Increasing milk production requires increasing milking frequency (MF) from two times daily (2X) to three (3X) or more. High milk production leads to negative energy balance (NEB) and homeorhesis, characterized by lipolysis, ketogenesis, and endocrinological changes. The relationship among energy balance (EB), lipolysis, and ketogenesis with endocrine and metabolic parameters in blood of cows milked 2X and 3X daily was studied. Holstein Friesian cows milked 2X (n = 45) and 3X (n = 45) were analyzed, with approximately 50% of cows in each group in positive EB (PEB) and 50% in NEB. After determining EB, blood samples were collected from all cows and blood serum was analyzed for non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB), glucose (GLU), cholesterol (CHOL), triglycerides (TGC), total bilirubin (TBIL), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), calcium (Ca), inorganic phosphate (P), total protein (TPROT), albumin (ALB), urea, insulin (INS), T3, T4, and cortisol (CORT), and the RQUICKIBHB index of insulin resistance was calculated. Cows milked 3X in NEB represent a special cluster that partially overlaps with cows milked 2X in NEB and has no contact points with cows in PEB. Cows milked 3X had higher levels of NEFA, BHB, AST, GGT, TBIL, and CORT and lower levels of GLU, Ca, INS, and T4. Cows milked 3X in NEB had higher levels of NEFA, BHB, AST, GGT, TBIL, and CORT and lower levels of GLU, CHOL, TGC, TPROT, P, INS, RQUICKIBHB, and T3 compared with cows milked 2X in NEB and cows in PEB. In cows milked 3X, lipolysis and ketogenesis were much more prominent, and EB levels were lower, implying a pronounced shift in homeorhesis. Metabolic and endocrinology parameters were determined mainly by the values of EB, NEFA, and BHB in cows milked 3X in NEB compared with other categories of cows. The results confirm the peculiarity of metabolic adaptation in cows with increased MF, characterized not only by differences in the concentration of metabolites but also in their interactions.

Corrigendum: Overview of Cattle Diseases Listed Under Category C, D or E in the Animal Health Law for Which Control Programmes Are in Place Within Europe.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.688078.].

The effect of pumpkin seed cake and ground cloves (Syzygium aromaticum) supplementation on gastrointestinal nematode egg shedding in sheep.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of feed additives (pumpkin seed cake and cloves) on the egg excretion of gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) in sheep. Thirty ewes naturally infected with GIN were randomly selected from a flock and assigned to the following groups of 10 animals each: clove group (received 1.8 g ground cloves/ewe/day, for 7 days), pumpkin seed cake group (200 g pumpkin seed cake/ewe/day, for 7 days) and control group. Before starting the study, on day 0, and 5 days after the 7-day supplementation, on day 12, the body condition and FAMACHA scores were assessed and individual faecal egg counts (FEC) were performed. The mean body condition and the FAMACHA scores did not change significantly between day 0 and 12 with the exception of a significantly deteriorated FAMACHA score in the clove group. The percentage reduction of FEC was 40.7% on day 12 in the clove group and 52.9% in the pumpkin seed cake group. In the control group, FEC increased by 8.7%. A coproculture of faecal samples from four of the most infected animals on day 0 revealed Trichostrongylus spp. larvae L3 in all four selected ewes, Ostertagia spp. and Cooperia spp. in three and Haemonchus contortus in one ewe. These results are promising and encourage further studies aimed to evaluate the possibility that these plant supplements could be a complementary method for parasite control, thus reducing the need for chemotherapy.

TITLE: Effet de la supplémentation en tourteau de graines de citrouille et en clous de girofle moulus (Syzygium aromaticum) sur la production d'œufs des nématodes gastro-intestinaux chez les moutons. ABSTRACT: Le but de cette étude était d'évaluer l'effet des additifs alimentaires (tourteaux de graines de citrouille et clous de girofle) sur la production d'œufs par les nématodes gastro-intestinaux (NGI) chez le mouton. Trente brebis naturellement infectées par des NGI ont été sélectionnées au hasard dans un troupeau et réparties dans les groupes suivants de 10 animaux chacun : groupe clou de girofle (1,8 g de clous de girofle moulus / brebis / jour, pendant 7 jours), groupe tourteau de graines de citrouille (200 g de tourteau de graines de citrouille / brebis / jour, pendant 7 jours) et groupe témoin. Avant de commencer l'étude, au jour 0, et cinq jours après la supplémentation de 7 jours, au jour 12, l'état corporel et les scores FAMACHA ont été évalués et des dénombrements d'œufs fécaux (DOF) individuels ont été effectués. L'état corporel moyen et les scores FAMACHA n'ont pas changé de manière significative entre le jour 0 et le jour 12 à l'exception d'un score FAMACHA significativement détérioré dans le groupe clou de girofle. Le pourcentage de réduction du DOF était de 40,7 % au jour 12 dans le groupe clou de girofle et de 52,9 % dans le groupe tourteau de graines de citrouille. Dans le groupe témoin, le DOF a augmenté de 8,7 %. Une coproculture d'échantillons fécaux de quatre des animaux les plus infectés au jour 0 a révélé des larves L3 de Trichostrongylus spp. chez les quatre brebis sélectionnées, Ostertagia spp. et Cooperia spp. dans trois et Haemonchus contortus dans une. Ces résultats sont prometteurs et encouragent de nouvelles études visant à évaluer la possibilité que ces suppléments végétaux puissent être une méthode complémentaire de contrôle des parasites, réduisant ainsi le besoin en chimiothérapie.

Minimal Erythema Dose Determination in Holstein Friesian Cattle.

Cattle on pasture are continuously exposed to solar UV radiation, which has been associated with biological effects such as sunburn, photosensitization, squamous cell carcinoma, and cutaneous vitamin D3 production. The minimal erythema dose (MED) required to produce first-degree sunburn (erythema) is poorly researched in cattle. Since cattle are naturally covered with dense hair coats, the MED is influenced by the UV protection offered by the hair. The objective of this study was to determine the MED on intact-hair-covered (MED-H) and shaved white skin (MED-S) of Holstein Friesian cattle. Twenty-one Holstein Friesian cows and heifers were MED tested using a narrowband UV-B LED light (peak irradiance at 292 nm) on eight hair-covered and eight shaved areas over white skin previously unexposed to direct sunlight. Erythema was visually assessed after 24 h. The mean MED-H and MED-S were 5,595 and 329 J/m2, respectively. Heifers had a higher MED-H compared to cows, 7,600 and 4,969 J/m2, respectively. The mean UV transmittance of white cattle hair was 6.7%. MED-H was correlated with hair length (Spearman's rho = 0.76). A linear regression model showed that each millimeter of hair coat length increased the MED-H by 316 J/m2. In conclusion, this study provides a MED testing protocol for cattle and reports standardized values of MED for cattle on intact-hair-covered and shaved areas.

Overview of Cattle Diseases Listed Under Category C, D or E in the Animal Health Law for Which Control Programmes Are in Place Within Europe.

The COST action "Standardising output-based surveillance to control non-regulated diseases of cattle in the European Union (SOUND control)," aims to harmonise the results of surveillance and control programmes (CPs) for non-EU regulated cattle diseases to facilitate safe trade and improve overall control of cattle infectious diseases. In this paper we aimed to provide an overview on the diversity of control for these diseases in Europe. A non-EU regulated cattle disease was defined as an infectious disease of cattle with no or limited control at EU level, which is not included in the European Union Animal health law Categories A or B under Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2020/2002. A CP was defined as surveillance and/or intervention strategies designed to lower the incidence, prevalence, mortality or prove freedom from a specific disease in a region or country. Passive surveillance, and active surveillance of breeding bulls under Council Directive 88/407/EEC were not considered as CPs. A questionnaire was designed to obtain country-specific information about CPs for each disease. Animal health experts from 33 European countries completed the questionnaire. Overall, there are 23 diseases for which a CP exists in one or more of the countries studied. The diseases for which CPs exist in the highest number of countries are enzootic bovine leukosis, bluetongue, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, bovine viral diarrhoea and anthrax (CPs reported by between 16 and 31 countries). Every participating country has on average, 6 CPs (min-max: 1-13) in place. Most programmes are implemented at a national level (86%) and are applied to both dairy and non-dairy cattle (75%). Approximately one-third of the CPs are voluntary, and the funding structure is divided between government and private resources. Countries that have eradicated diseases like enzootic bovine leukosis, bluetongue, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis and bovine viral diarrhoea have implemented CPs for other diseases to further improve the health status of cattle in their country. The control of non-EU regulated cattle diseases is very heterogenous in Europe. Therefore, the standardising of the outputs of these programmes to enable comparison represents a challenge.

Overview of Slovenian Control Programmes for Cattle Diseases Not Regulated by the European Union.

The European Union (EU) regulates the control of cattle diseases listed in categories A and B of the Animal Health Law (AHL). However, the control of other cattle diseases that have no, or limited EU regulation, is left to each member state. Slovenia has five control programmes (CPs) for non-EU regulated cattle diseases: bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD), infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), enzootic bovine leukosis (EBL), bluetongue and anthrax. Two (IBR and BVD) are voluntary and the others (EBL, anthrax and bluetongue) are compulsory. The three compulsory CPs are funded by the government. All the CPs are run by the government and laboratory tests are performed by the National Veterinary Institute. The rules for the CPs are laid down in Slovenian legislation. In addition, there is a national directive for the control of salmonellosis. Both BVD and IBR are endemic and have CPs based on increased biosecurity, testing and culling or vaccination, financed by the animal owners. Slovenia has been officially free of EBL since 2005 and carries out surveillance based on serological testing of a representative number of herds and inspection of carcasses at slaughter or necropsy. Vaccination is the main disease control measure for anthrax (sporadic) and bluetongue (currently perceived free-vaccination since 2017). Lack of motivation of farmers to participate in voluntary disease CPs and to implement and follow strict biosecurity measures are the most pressing issues in improving the health status of Slovenian cattle. An overview of the existing CPs and the circumstances leading to their implementation are presented.

Corrigendum: Overview of Slovenian Control Programmes for Selected Cattle Diseases, Listed Under Category C, D or E of the European Animal Health Law.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.674515.].

Increasing importance of anthelmintic resistance in European livestock: creation and meta-analysis of an open database.

Helminth infections are ubiquitous in grazing ruminant production systems, and are responsible for significant costs and production losses. Anthelmintic Resistance (AR) in parasites is now widespread throughout Europe, although there are still gaps in our knowledge in some regions and countries. AR is a major threat to the sustainability of modern ruminant livestock production, resulting in reduced productivity, compromised animal health and welfare, and increased greenhouse gas emissions through increased parasitism and farm inputs. A better understanding of the extent of AR in Europe is needed to develop and advocate more sustainable parasite control approaches. A database of European published and unpublished AR research on gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) and liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica) was collated by members of the European COST Action "COMBAR" (Combatting Anthelmintic Resistance in Ruminants), and combined with data from a previous systematic review of AR in GIN. A total of 197 publications on AR in GIN were available for analysis, representing 535 studies in 22 countries and spanning the period 1980-2020. Reports of AR were present throughout the European continent and some reports indicated high within-country prevalence. Heuristic sample size-weighted estimates of European AR prevalence over the whole study period, stratified by anthelmintic class, varied between 0 and 48%. Estimated regional (country) prevalence was highly heterogeneous, ranging between 0% and 100% depending on livestock sector and anthelmintic class, and generally increased with increasing research effort in a country. In the few countries with adequate longitudinal data, there was a tendency towards increasing AR over time for all anthelmintic classes in GIN: aggregated results in sheep and goats since 2010 reveal an average prevalence of resistance to benzimidazoles (BZ) of 86%, macrocyclic lactones except moxidectin (ML) 52%, levamisole (LEV) 48%, and moxidectin (MOX) 21%. All major GIN genera survived treatment in various studies. In cattle, prevalence of AR varied between anthelmintic classes from 0-100% (BZ and ML), 0-17% (LEV) and 0-73% (MOX), and both Cooperia and Ostertagia survived treatment. Suspected AR in F. hepatica was reported in 21 studies spanning 6 countries. For GIN and particularly F. hepatica, there was a bias towards preferential sampling of individual farms with suspected AR, and research effort was biased towards Western Europe and particularly the United Kingdom. Ongoing capture of future results in the live database, efforts to avoid bias in farm recruitment, more accurate tests for AR, and stronger appreciation of the importance of AR among the agricultural industry and policy makers, will support more sophisticated analyses of factors contributing to AR and effective strategies to slow its spread.

TITLE: Importance croissante de la résistance aux anthelminthiques chez les ruminants européens : création et méta-analyse d'une base de données ouverte. ABSTRACT: Les helminthes sont omniprésents dans les systèmes de production de ruminants au pâturage et sont responsables de coûts et de pertes de production importants. La résistance aux anthelminthiques (RA) des parasites est maintenant répandue dans toute l'Europe, bien qu'il existe encore des lacunes dans nos connaissances dans certaines régions et certains pays. La RA est une menace majeure pour la pérennité de la production moderne de ruminants, en diminuant la productivité, en compromettant la santé et le bien-être des animaux, et en augmentant les émissions de gaz à effet de serre au travers d'une augmentation du parasitisme et des intrants agricoles. Une meilleure compréhension de l'étendue de la RA en Europe est nécessaire pour développer et préconiser des approches de lutte antiparasitaire plus durables. Une base de données intégrant des informations publiées et non publiées en Europe concernant la RA des nématodes gastro-intestinaux (NGI) et de la douve du foie (Fasciola hepatica) a été compilée par les membres de l'action européenne COST « COMBAR ¼ (« Combattre la résistance aux anthelminthiques chez les ruminants ¼) et combinée avec les données d'une précédente étude systématique concernant la RA des NGI. Au total, 197 publications sur la RA des NGI étaient disponibles pour analyse, représentant 535 études dans 22 pays et couvrant la période 1980­2020. Des signalements de RA étaient présents sur tout le continent européen et certains rapports indiquaient une forte prévalence nationale. Les estimations heuristiques pondérées par la taille de l'échantillon de la prévalence de la RA en Europe sur toute la période d'étude, stratifiées par classe d'anthelminthiques, variaient de 0 à 48 %. La prévalence régionale (nationale) estimée était très hétérogène, variant entre 0 % et 100 % selon le secteur de l'élevage et la classe d'anthelminthique, et augmentait généralement avec les efforts de recherche dans le pays. Dans les quelques pays disposant de données longitudinales adéquates, il y avait une tendance à l'augmentation de la RA au fil du temps pour toutes les classes d'anthelminthiques des NGI : les résultats agrégés chez les ovins et caprins depuis 2010 révèlent une prévalence moyenne de résistance aux benzimidazoles (BZ) de 86 %, aux lactones macrocycliques sauf moxidectine (ML) de 52 %, au lévamisole (LEV) de 48 % et à la moxidectine (MOX) de 21 %. Tous les genres principaux de NGI ont survécu au traitement dans diverses études. Chez les bovins, la prévalence de la RA variait selon les classes d'anthelminthiques de 0 à 100 % (BZ et ML), 0 à 17 % (LEV) et 0 à 73 % (MOX), et Cooperia et Ostertagia ont survécu aux traitements. Une RA suspectée chez F. hepatica a été signalée dans 21 études portant sur 6 pays. Pour les NGI, et encore plus pour F. hepatica, il y avait un biais d'échantillonnage en faveur des exploitations individuelles suspectées de RA, et l'effort de recherche était biaisé vers l'Europe occidentale et en particulier le Royaume-Uni. La capture continue des résultats futurs dans la base de données, en direct, les efforts pour éviter les biais dans le recrutement des exploitations, des tests plus précis pour la RA et une meilleure appréciation de l'importance de la RA parmi l'industrie agricole et les décideurs politiques, soutiendront des analyses plus sophistiquées des facteurs contribuant à la RA, et des stratégies efficaces pour ralentir sa propagation.

Welfare assessment in dairy cows using hair cortisol as a part of monitoring protocols.

Welfare of dairy cows can be assessed using welfare assessment protocols consisting of resource, management and animal-based measures. Welfare Quality® Assessment Protocol is one of the best-known protocols, which depends almost entirely on animal-based measures. To gain more objective and rapid welfare assessment, new techniques have been developed to measure welfare of animals, such as hair cortisol concentration. As cortisol is released in response to stress, it has long been used as a biomarker of stress in animals. While the precise mechanism of cortisol incorporation into hair is unknown, hair cortisol concentration seems to be a marker of long-term systemic cortisol concentration. Hair cortisol is, therefore, a potential marker of chronic stress and is not likely to be affected by acute stress. Studies on cattle show connections between hair cortisol concentration and factors such as pregnancy, parity, diseases, ectoparasites, body condition score, environmental changes, stocking density and milk yield. Hair cortisol concentration appears to be affected by time of sampling, cow age and breed, UV radiation, season, body region of sampled hair and hair colour. Its concentration also depends on sampling and analytical methods. Hair cortisol is a promising non-invasive tool to evaluate welfare of dairy cows, however, more research is needed to determine the extent of effects on its concentration and the appropriate method of sampling and analysis. Correlations between Welfare Quality® Assessment Protocol scores and pooled hair cortisol concentrations have not yet been found, and more research is needed with larger sample size, a standardized protocol of hair sampling, processing and analysis. With proper attention to detail, hair cortisol levels in pooled hair samples might come to be used as a reliable indicator of dairy animal welfare.

A review of vitamin D and its importance to the health of dairy cattle.

This Research Reflection short review will discuss vitamin D metabolism, its role in nutrition, disease prevention, and welfare of dairy cattle, as well as its toxicity. Vitamin D is an important fat-soluble vitamin. However, some researchers regard it as a hormone due to its function in the organism. Its role is not limited just to Ca homoeostasis and bone metabolism but is also associated with immunity. In dairy cattle it is known for preventing milk fever. Cows can acquire vitamin D in many ways for example through feed, parenteral injections or through UVB irradiation from the sun or artificial lighting. The vitamin D in feed can either be plant-/ fungi- based ergocalciferol or animal-based cholecalciferol. There is currently only one registered feed vitamin D supplement for cattle in the European Union and it is cholecalciferol. Animals can also synthesize their own vitamin D when 7-dihydrocholesterol in the skin is irradiated with UVB light resulting in cholecalciferol production. Despite its importance, many cattle are deficient in vitamin D due to inadequate supplementation or insufficient sun exposure. In a study performed at the Veterinary Faculty in Slovenia 12 high producing Holstein Friesian cows at a commercial dairy farm were blood tested for vitamin D status for three succeeding months and all but one were vitamin D insufficient in all testings. The cows were not exposed to direct sunlight and the content of vitamin D3 in feed was <400 IU/kg dry matter, which is less than half of the NRC (2001) recommendation. Deficiency can also occur due to diseases affecting the gastrointestinal tract, such as paratuberculosis, which lower the absorptive capacity of the gut. Vitamin D can be toxic if cows are over-supplemented or consume large quantities of plants like Trisetum flavescens, which contain an active form of vitamin D-calcitriol or its glycosides, that are activated by digestion in the rumen.

Management practices that influence the welfare of calves on small family farms.

In this Research Reflection we review management practices in small family farms with less than 100 cows. Small farms represent the majority of farms in the EU and the world, and they are of great importance for the economy of a country. On cattle farms, the welfare of calves is of primary importance for the profitability of the herd, and poor management is one of the main factors influencing calf health and survival. Data on the risk factors for calf welfare issues in small-scale farms are limited. For this purpose, the literature data from six world countries were presented and compared, including Serbia and Slovenia where a survey related to the issue was carried out within the COST Action FA1308, DairyCare. Some practices within the following areas in calf management were considered: calving management, care for new-born calves, use of painful procedures, colostrum management, cow-calf separation, calf feeding, weaning, calf housing, and general monitoring. In each of the countries, the health and welfare of calves are threatened by some omissions in rearing practices and the major are related to the new-born calf management, the feeding and watering management, and the application of hygienic measures. Many farmers are well aware of the importance of proper calf rearing; others would need more incentive to improve calf management. Each country should pay attention to the education of farmers about the most common deficiencies in calf management.

Coronaviruses in cattle.

Bovine coronaviruses are spread all over the world. They cause two types of clinical manifestations in cattle either an enteric, calf diarrhoea and winter dysentery in adult cattle, or respiratory in all age groups of cattle. The role of coronaviruses in respiratory infections is still a hot topic of discussion since they have been isolated from sick as well as healthy animals and replication of disease is rarely successful. Bovine coronavirus infection is characterised by high morbidity but low mortality. The laboratory diagnosis is typically based on serological or molecular methods. There is no registered drug for the treatment of virus infections in cattle and we are limited to supportive therapy and preventative measures. The prevention of infection is based on vaccination, biosecurity, management and hygiene. This paper will cover epidemiology, taxonomy, pathogenesis, clinical signs, diagnosis, therapy, economic impact and prevention of coronavirus infections in cattle.

Congenital hypotrichosis in a Simmental cross heifer.

BACKGROUND: Congenital hypotrichosis is defined as a less than normal amount of hair, obvious at birth or in the first weeks of life. Causes are nongenetic or genetic. OBJECTIVES: To describe the clinical presentation and histological features of a novel form of hypotrichosis in a heifer. ANIMAL: A 15-month-old Simmental cross-bred heifer was presented with a history of progressive hair loss, which started at four months of age and progressed to severe generalized hypotrichosis. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Anamnestic data, detailed clinical examination, haematological investigation, selected biochemistry profile, RT-PCR and ELISA for bovine viral diarrhoea virus did not suggest a cause for the hypotrichosis; skin samples were examined histologically. RESULTS: Histopathology of the skin showed a 50% reduction in the number of hair follicles and dysplastic hair follicles; these findings led to a diagnosis of congenital hypotrichosis. The distribution of the hair and some of the histopathological characteristics were potentially consistent with viable hypotrichosis. A marked reduction in follicle density, hypertrophy of sebaceous glands, hypoplasia of arrector pili muscles and moderate acanthosis with hyperkeratosis, which have not been described previously in viable hypotrichosis or other forms of congenital hypotrichosis, were also observed. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: This case may represent a novel form of congenital hypotrichosis.