The first reported hepatitis E outbreak in a food manufacturing factory: Korea, 2022

Objectives@#On February 16, 2022, 12 cases of hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection were reported in a food manufacturing factory in Korea. The aim of this study was to identify additional cases and to determine the source of this HEV outbreak. @*Methods@#This study was an in-depth investigation of 12 HEV immunoglobulin M (IgM)-positive cases and their demographic, clinical, and epidemiological characteristics. On-site specimens were collected from the environment and from humans, and a follow-up investigation was conducted 2 to 3 months after the outbreak. @*Results@#Among 80 production workers in the factory, 12 (15.0%) had acute HEV infection, all of whom were asymptomatic. The follow-up investigation showed that 3 cases were HEV IgM-positive, while 6 were HEV IgG-positive. HEV genes were not detected in the HEV IgM-positive specimens. HEV genes were not detected in the food products or environmental specimens collected on-site. HEV was presumed to be the causative pathogen. However, it could not be confirmed that the source of infection was common consumption inside the factory. @*Conclusion@#This was the first domestic case of an HEV infection outbreak in a food manufacturing factory in Korea. Our results provide information for the future control of outbreaks and for the preparation of measures to prevent domestic outbreaks of HEV infection.

The Changes in Respiratory and Enteric Adenovirus Epidemiology in Korea From 2017 to June 2022

Since October 2021, severe acute hepatitis of unknown etiology in pediatric patients has been observed in many countries around the world. Adenovirus (mainly enteric adenovirus) was detected in more than 50% of the cases. Nationwide surveillance on acute hepatitis of unknown etiology in pediatric patients was started in May 2022 in Korea. Taking into account the severity of the illness and the urgency of the epidemiological situation worldwide, we report a summary of changes in adenovirus epidemiology during the past five years and six months in Korea.

Evaluation of COVID-19 vaccine effectiveness in different high-risk facility types during a period of Delta variant dominance in the Republic of Korea: a crosssectional study

Objectives@#We evaluated the effectiveness of coronavirus disease 2019 vaccination in high-risk facilities in the Republic of Korea during the period when the highly transmissible Delta variant was prevalent. Additionally, we aimed to explore any disparities in vaccine effectiveness (VE) across various types of institutions, specifically distinguishing between non-medical and medical establishments. @*Methods@#We examined 8 outbreak clusters covering 243 cases and 895 contacts from 8 highrisk facilities divided into 2 groups: group A (4 non-medical institutions) and group B (4 medical institutions). These clusters were observed from July 27, 2021 to October 16, 2021 for the attack rate (AR) and VE with respect to disease severity. A generalized linear model with a binomial distribution was used to determine the odds ratio (OR) for disease severity and death. @*Results@#AR was notably lower in group B (medical institutions). Furthermore, VE analysis revealed that group A exhibited higher effectivity for disease severity and death than group B. The OR for disease severity was 0.24 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.03–2.16) for group A and 0.27 (95% CI, 0.12–0.64) for group B, with the OR for death at 0.12 (95% CI, 0.01–1.32) in group A and 0.34 (95% CI, 0.14–0.87) in group B. @*Conclusion@#Although VE may vary across institutions, our findings underscore the importance of implementing vaccinations in high-risk facilities. Customized vaccination programs, tailored response plans, and competent management personnel are essential for effectively addressing and mitigating public health challenges.

Impact of Nonpharmacological Interventions on Severe Acute Respiratory Infections in Children: From

Background@#Nonpharmacological interventions (NPIs) reduce the incidence of respiratory infections. After NPIs imposed during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic ceased, respiratory infections gradually increased worldwide. However, few studies have been conducted on severe respiratory infections requiring hospitalization in pediatric patients.This study compares epidemiological changes in severe respiratory infections during pre-NPI, NPI, and post-NPI periods in order to evaluate the effect of that NPI on severe respiratory infections in children. @*Methods@#We retrospectively studied data collected at 13 Korean sentinel sites from January 2018 to October 2022 that were lodged in the national Severe Acute Respiratory Infections (SARIs) surveillance database. @*Results@#A total of 9,631 pediatric patients were admitted with SARIs during the pre-NPI period, 579 during the NPI period, and 1,580 during the post-NPI period. During the NPI period, the number of pediatric patients hospitalized with severe respiratory infections decreased dramatically, thus from 72.1 per 1,000 to 6.6 per 1,000. However, after NPIs ceased, the number increased to 22.8 per 1,000. During the post-NPI period, the positive test rate increased to the level noted before the pandemic. @*Conclusion@#Strict NPIs including school and daycare center closures effectively reduced severe respiratory infections requiring hospitalization of children. However, childcare was severely compromised. To prepare for future respiratory infections, there is a need to develop a social consensus on NPIs that are appropriate for children.

Change in Severity and Clinical Manifestation of MIS-C Over SARSCoV-2 Variant Outbreaks in Korea

Background@#There is difference in the incidence of multi-system inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) in patients with different variants of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, however, little is known about the epidemiology in Asian countries. We investigated and compared the epidemiology of the MIS-C during omicron-dominant period with that of previous periods in South Korea. @*Methods@#We obtained clinical, epidemiological and laboratory data on MIS-C cases from national MIS-C surveillance in South Korea. We defined pre-delta period as January 2020–May 2021; delta period as June 2021–December 2021; and omicron period as January 2022–April 2022. We describe the clinical characteristics and outcomes of MIS-C patients by period. @*Results@#A total of 91 cases were assessed to be MIS-C cases. Number of MIS-C cases have increased from six cases during pre-delta period to 66 cases during omicron period, while the incidence rate (the number of MIS-C cases per 100,000 cases of reported coronavirus disease 2019) has decreased from 38.5 cases per 100,000 (95% confidence interval [CI], 14.1–83.9) during pre-delta period to 1.6 cases per 100,000 (95% CI, 1.2–2.0) during omicron periods. During pre-delta period, 66.7% and 100% had hypotension and gastrointestinal involvement, respectively; while during omicron period, 12.1% and 6.1% had such clinical manifestations. Fifty percent of pre-delta MIS-C patients were taken intensive care unit (ICU) cares, while 10.6% of patients during omicron periods were in ICUs. @*Conclusion@#Omicron period were associated with less severe clinical manifestation compared to pre-delta and delta periods. Although incidence rate of MIS-C was lower for the omicron period than pre-delta and delta periods, number of patients reported with MIS-C may pose a substantial clinical burden.

Risk Factors Related to COVID-19Reinfection and Fatality During the Omicron (BA.1/BA.2) Period in Korea

Background@#This study aimed to investigate the deaths due to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) reinfection and related risk factors. @*Methods@#National cohort data were collected for a six-month period when omicron BA.1/BA.2 variant was dominant in South Korea. @*Results@#The long-term care facility residents (adjusted odds ratio, 3.11; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.98–3.25) had significantly higher risk of reinfection than the general population. The risk of reinfection was significantly lower for persons with 2 or more vaccine doses compared to the unvaccinated. The risk of death was significantly higher in the reinfection group than in the primary infection group for persons in the 60–74 years age group (adjusted relative risk [aRR], 1.62; 95% CI, 1.19–2.20), and immunocompromised group (aRR, 4.56; 95% CI, 2.34–8.90). @*Conclusion@#In these data, vaccination history was significantly related to reduced COVID-19 reinfection and severe progression, and scheduled vaccinations were important even with a history of infection.

Within-Host Evolution of SARS-CoV-2in a B-Cell Depleted Patient With Successful Treatment

Prolonged viral shedding of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in an immunocompromised host is a challenge as the treatment and infection control for chronic coronavirus disease 2019 infection is not well established and there is a potential risk of new variants emerging. A 48-year-old woman who underwent chemotherapy, including rituximab and steroid, had reactivation of SARS-CoV-2 68 days after the virus was first detected. She successfully recovered after receiving convalescent plasma and intravenous immunoglobulin. Genomic analysis demonstrated that viruses collected from the nasopharyngeal specimens at day 0 and day 68 had 18 different nucleotide mutations, implying within-host evolution after in-depth epidemiologic investigation.

Genomic Surveillance of SARS-CoV-2: Distribution of Clades in the Republic of Korea in 2020

Since a novel beta-coronavirus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) was first reported in December 2019, there has been a rapid global spread of the virus. Genomic surveillance was conducted on samples isolated from infected individuals to monitor the spread of genetic variants of SARS-CoV-2 in Korea. The Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency performed whole genome sequencing of SARS-CoV-2 in Korea for 1 year (January 2020 to January 2021). A total of 2,488 SARSCoV-2 cases were sequenced (including 648 cases from abroad). Initially, the prevalent clades of SARSCoV-2 were the S and V clades, however, by March 2020, GH clade was the most dominant. Only international travelers were identified as having G or GR clades, and since the first variant 501Y.V1 was identified (from a traveler from the United Kingdom on December 22 nd , 2020), a total of 27 variants of 501Y.V1, 501Y.V2, and 484K.V2 have been classified (as of January 25 th , 2021). The results in this study indicated that quarantining of travelers entering Korea successfully prevented dissemination of the SARS-CoV-2 variants in Korea.

Importation and Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 B.1.1.529 (Omicron) Variant of Concern in Korea, November 2021

In November 2021, 14 international travel-related severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) B.1.1.529 (omicron) variant of concern (VOC) patients were detected in South Korea. Epidemiologic investigation revealed community transmission of the omicron VOC. A total of 80 SARS-CoV-2 omicron VOC-positive patients were identified until December 10, 2021 and 66 of them reported no relation to the international travel.There may be more transmissions with this VOC in Korea than reported.

Early Intervention Reduces the Spread of COVID-19 in Long-Term Care Facilities in the Republic of Korea

This study describes the epidemiological characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) based on reported cases from long-term care facilities. As of April 20th, 2020, 3 long-term care facilities in a metropolitan area of South Korea had reported cases of COVID-19. These facilities’ employees were presumed to be the sources of infection. There were 2 nursing hospitals that did not report any additional cases. One nursing home had a total of 25 cases, with an attack rate of 51.4% (95% CI 35.6–67.0), and a fatality rate of 38.9% (95% CI 20.3–61.4) among residents. The results from this study suggest that early detection and maintenance of infection control minimizes the risk of rapid transmission.

Regional Distribution of Hepatitis C Virus Infection in the Republic of Korea, 2007-2011

BACKGROUND/AIMS: In Korea, hepatitis C is included as an infectious disease in a sentinel surveillance system. Recently, a large variation in hepatitis C incidence between different regions in Korea has been noticed. The current study verified the nationwide distribution of hepatitis C infection for effective prevention and management. METHODS: We counted the number of hepatitis C patients who visited a hospital per county using the National Health Insurance database from 2007 to 2011. The age-adjusted prevalence ratio was used, and the age adjustment method was used as an indirect standardization method. Disease mapping and spatial analysis were conducted using a geographic information system. RESULTS: The annual prevalence of diagnosed hepatitis C was approximately 0.12% to 0.13% in Korea. The age-adjusted prevalence ratios in Busan, Jeonnam, and Gyeongnam were high (1.75, 1.4, and 1.3, respectively). The three regions in the southern coastal area of the Korean Peninsula were identified as a high-prevalence cluster (Moran's index, 0.3636). CONCLUSIONS: The present study showed that hepatitis C infection has very large regional variation, and there are several high-risk areas. Preventive measures focusing on these areas should be applied to block the transmission of hepatitis C and reduce the disease burden.

The Long and Short Incubation Periods of Plasmodium vivax Malaria in Korea: The Characteristics and Relating Factors / 감염과화학요법

BACKGROUND: The cases of Plasmodium vivax malaria in Korea are mixed with long and short incubation periods. This study aims to define clinico-epidemiologic chracteristcs of Plasmodium vivax malaria in Korea. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We selected the civilian cases infected with P. vivax malaria in Korea from the epidemiological investigation data of 2001 to 2010, whose incubation periods could be estimated. The long and short incubation periods were defined by duration of infection and onset time, and the cases were compared by demographic factors and clinical symptom, infection and onset time. The correlation was analyzed between the proportion of cases in the infected region with the long incubation period and meteorological factors along with latitude. RESULTS: The length of the mean short and long incubation periods for the cases were 25.5 days and 329.4 days, respectively. The total number of the study subjects was 897, and the number cases of short and long incubation periods was 575 (64.1%) and 322 (35.9%), respectively. The aspect of incubation period showed a significant difference by region of infection; there was a higher proportion of long incubation period infection cases in Gangwon-do than in Gyeonggi-do and Incheon. The proportion of long incubation period cases showed significant correlation with latitude and temperature of August and September of the infected regions. CONCLUSIONS: Incubation period of P. vivax malaria in Korea showed significant difference by infected region, infection and onset time and the proportion of long incubation period cases showed significant correlation with latitude and meteorological factors of the infected regions.

Case Series of Mycobacterium Abscessus Infections Associated with a Trigger Point Injection and Epidural Block at a Rural Clinic / 한국역학회지

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this report is to investigate Mycobacterium abscessus infections at a rural clinic and carry out a surveillance program to determine the extent and source of these infections. METHODS: The authors conducted an active surveillance investigation of 36 patients who had visited the clinic since 1 July 2008. Clinical specimens were collected from the patients and an envirnmental investigation. Pulsed-field gel elctrophoresis (PFGE) was performed for comparing with M. abscessus isolates from the patients. RESULTS: Six specimens were obtained from the 6 patients respectively and 22 environmental samples were obtained. M. abscessus was isolated from the wounds of two patients, and various nosocomial pathogens, but not M. abscessus, were isolated from the surrounding environment. Two strains of M. abscessus from patients were identical as a result of PFGE. CONCLUSION: Infection control education including proper hand hygiene should be emphasized for physicians performing invasive procedures. There also needs to be more attention for invasive procedures management, including trigger point injection and epidural block in rural clinics.

Reliability of a Questionnaire for Women's Reproductive History / 예방의학회지

OBJECTIVES: This study was performed to evaluate the reproducibility of a questionnaire concerned with reproductive history and to ascertain which characteristics of the subjects (age, the visit-revisit intervals, education and chronic disease) are associated with good reliability in the Korean Multi-Center Cancer Cohort (KMCC) study. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 19,688 participants were enrolled between 1993 and 2004. Among them, we selected 386 participants who were aged 40 or more and who re-visited within 8 years after the first visit. Reliability was measured by the percent agreement according to error range for the continuous variables and the percent agreement and kappa statistics for the categorical variables. RESULTS: The pregnancy histories were reliable (kappa=0.67) and the reasons for being menopausal among the postmenopausal women were also reliable (kappa=0.92). The percent agreement of the breast-feeding history was high (96.1%), although the kappa statistic was low. For the continuous variables, when the error range of one variable was considered to be reliable, the percent agreement of the age at menarche and the age at the first full term pregnancy was good (69.4% and 83.6%), whereas that of the age at menopause was low (51.5%). The factors associated with high reliability were a younger age, the presence of chronic disease and a short visit-revisit time interval. CONCLUSIONS: The agreements for parity, the reasons for menopause, and the breastfeeding history in the reproductive history questionnaire used in the KMCC were relatively good. The questionnaire for the menarche age and the menopausal age might have lower reliability due to the difference between Korean age and American age. To obtain reliable information, more attention should be given to the items in questionnaire-based surveys, and especially for surveying old-aged women.

Cigarette Smoking and Gastric Cancer Risk in a Community-based Cohort Study in Korea / 예방의학회지

OBJECTIVES: Gastric cancer is the most common incident cancer in Korea. Although Helicobacter pylori infection is the most important risk factor for the development of gastric cancer, cigarette smoking has also been suggested to play an important role in the development of gastric cancer. The objective of this study is to evaluate the relationship between cigarette smoking and gastric cancer risk in a Korean population. METHODS: The study population consisted of 13,785 subjects who had been enrolled in the Korean Multi-Center Cancer Cohort between 1993 and 2002. As of December 2002, 139 incident gastric cancer cases were ascertained through the Korea Central Cancer Registry and the National Death Certificate Database. Relative risks (RR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for gastric cancer were estimated using CoxZs proportional hazard model adjusted for age, education, alcohol drinking status and history of gastritis or ulcer. RESULTS: Significant dose-response relationships were observed between the duration of smoking and the risk of gastric cancer among the male subjects in comparison to non-smokers: men who smoked for 20-39 years had a 2.09- fold (95% CI 1.00-4.38) increase, and those who smoked for more than 40 years had a 3.13-fold (95% CI 1.59-6.17) increase in the risk of gastric cancer (Ptrend<0.01). CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that a longer duration of cigarette smoking may increase the risk of gastric cancer development in a dose-response manner in Korean men. The association between smoking and gastric cancer risk in women should be verified in future studies with a larger number of cases.

Correction: Long Term Trends and the Future Gastric Cancer Mortality in Korea: 1983~2013 / Journal of the Korean Cancer Association, 대한암학회지

This article was published with an error.

Cigarette Smoking, Alcohol Consumption, Tuberculosis and Risk of Lung Cancer: The Korean Multi-center Cancer Cohort Study / 예방의학회지

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to evaluate the roles of cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, tuberculosis, and their interactions in the risk of lung cancer in a Korean cohort. METHODS: The study subjects comprised 13,150 males and females aged above 20 years old. During the follow up period from 1993 to 2002, 79 lung cancer cases were identified by the central cancer registry and the national death certificate database. Information on cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption and the history of physiciandiagnosed tuberculosis was obtained by interview. Indirect chest X-ray findings were also evaluated to ascertain tuberculosis cases. Cox proportional hazard models were used to estimate relative risks (RR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) after adjusting for age and gender. RESULTS: Cigarette smoking was statistically significantly associated with an increased risk of lung cancer [for current smokers, RR = 2.33 (95% CI = 1.23 - 4.42) compared to non-smokers]. After further adjustment for cigarette smoking, both alcohol consumption and tuberculosis showed no statistically significant association with the risk of lung cancer [for current drinkers, RR = 0.80 (95% CI = 0.48 - 1.33) compared to non-drinkers] [for tuberculosis cases, RR = 1.17 (95% CI = 0.58 - 2.36) compared to noncases]. There was no statistically significant interaction between cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption (pinteraction = 0.38), or cigarette smoking and tuberculosis (p-interaction = 0.74). CONCLUSIONS: Although cigarette smoking was confirmed as a risk factor of lung cancer in this cohort study, this study suggests that alcohol consumption and tuberculosis may not be associated with the risk of lung cancer.

Fasting Serum Glucose and Subsequent Liver Cancer Risk in a Korean Prospective Cohort / 예방의학회지

OBJECTIVES: Chronic infections with hepatitis B or C and alcoholic cirrhosis are three well-known major risk factors for liver cancer. Diabetes has also been suggested as a potential risk factor. However, the findings of previous studies have been controversial in terms of the causal association. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the association between serum glucose levels and liver cancer development in a Korean cohort. METHODS: Thirty-six liver cancer cases were identified in the Korean Multi-Center Cancer Cohort (KMCC). Baseline information on lifestyle characteristics was obtained via questionnaire. Serum glucose levels were measured at the study's enrollment. Relative risks (RRs) were estimated using a Cox proportional hazard regression model. The adjusting variables included age, gender, smoking history, alcohol consumption, body mass index, and hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) seropositivity. RESULTS: The RRs of serum glucose for liver caner were 1.20 (95% CI=0.48-2.99) for the category of 100 to 125 mg/dL of serum glucose and 2.77 (95% CI=1.24-6.18) for the >126 mg/dL serum glucose category (both compared to the 100 mg/dL. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study suggest that a high level of serum glucose can increase liver cancer risk independently of hepatitis infection and drinking history in Koreans. This study implies that glucose intolerance may be an independent risk factor for liver cancer.

Long Term Trends and the Future Gastric Cancer Mortality in Korea : 1983~2013 / Journal of the Korean Cancer Association, 대한암학회지

PURPOSE: In spite of gastric cancer's decreasing incidence and mortality rates, it is still the most common cancer in Korea. In the present study, we examined the temporal trends of gastric cancer mortality during the past 20 years in Korea by using an age-period-cohort model, and we predicted the mortality rates for the next 10 years. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Data on the annual number of deaths due to gastric cancer and data on population statistics from 1984 to 2003 were obtained from the Korean National Statistical Office. A log-linear Poisson ageperiod-cohort model was used to estimate age, period and birth cohort effects. To project two periods (10 years) into the future, the new cohort values were estimated by performing linear regression that was applied to a chosen number of the most recent cohort values. RESULTS: The trends of gastric cancer mortality were predominantly explained by the cohort effect; the risk of gastric cancer death decreased since the 1919 birth cohort for both genders. The predicted, expected age-adjusted mortality rates per 100,000 for males and females are 45.72 and 23.75, respectively, during 2004~2008, and 34.62 and 17.93 respectively, during 2009~2013. During 2004~2008 and 2009~2013, the predicted numbers of deaths due to gastric cancer in males are 36,922 and 27,959, respectively, whereas those in females are 19,698 and 14,869, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Not only the mortality, but also the incidence of gastric cancer in Korea is expected to further decrease in both men and women if the trends of the past 20 years continue.

Mortality Trends in Colorectal Cancer and Breast Cancer in Korea: Birth Cohort Effects? / 한국역학회지

PURPOSE: Cancer has been the leading cause of deaths since 1980s in Korea. Among them, colorectal cancer and breast cancer shows steadily increasing pattern, being the fourth and the fifth common site of cancer death in Korea, respectively. This analysis aimed to evaluate potential contribution of birth cohort effects to the recent increases in mortality of colorectal cancer and breast cancer since 1983 in Korea. METHODS: Mortality statistics on deaths of both cancers for the past 20 years of 1983~2002 were obtained from the National Statistical Office. The age-standardized mortality rates were calculated based on the census population of 1992 as a standard. RESULTS: Age-standardized mortality rate for colorectal cancer increased 4.7-fold in men and 3.6-fold in women, whereas 2.1-fold increase in breast cancer mortality during 1983~2002. Age-specific mortality rates for colorectal cancer were steadily increasing by age before 1991 in both genders. However, the mortality rates showed an exponentially increasing pattern for the age group of 70 and over during 1993~2001, which was more prominent in female. The birth cohort curves showed that there were 2- to 3-fold increases in the mortality rates of people who were born in 1931 for colorectal cancer compared to those of people who were born in 1921. Differences in mortality for breast cancer by birth cohort were 1.7-fold among age group of 45~49 and 50~54 between 1936 and 1946. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis suggests that recent increases in mortality of colorectal cancer and breast cancer could potentially be due to birth cohort effects, i.e. rapid changes in life-style in younger generation. The quantitative approach using age-period-cohort model should be pursued.