The politics of agricultural policy and nutrition: A case study of Malawi's Farm Input Subsidy Programme (FISP).

The concept of food and nutrition policy has broadened from simply being an aspect of health policy, to policy interventions from across a wide range of sectors, but still with potentially important impact on nutritional outcomes. This wider and more complex conceptualisation involves policy with multiple objectives and stakeholder influences. Thus, it becomes particularly important to understand the dynamics of these policy processes, including policy design and implementation. To add to this literature, we apply the Kaleidoscope Model for understanding policy change in developing country contexts to the case-study of an agricultural input subsidy (AIS) programme in Malawi, the Farm Input Subsidy Programme (FISP), exploring the dynamics of the FISP policy process including nutritional impact. Over a three-month period between 2017 and 2019 we conducted in-depth interviews with key stakeholders at national and district levels, and focus groups with people from rural districts in Malawi. We also undertook a review of literature relating to the political economy of the FISP. We analysed the data thematically, as per the domains of the Kaleidoscope Model. The analysis across the FISP policy process including policy design and implementation highlights how stakeholders' ideas, interests and influence have shaped the evolution of FISP policy including constraints to policy improvement-and the nutritional impacts of this. This approach extends the literature on the tensions, contradictions and challenges in food and nutrition policy by examining the reasons that these occur in Malawi with the FISP. We also add to the political science and policy analysis literature on policy implementation, extending the concept of veto players to include those targeted by the policy. The findings are important for consideration by policymakers and other stakeholders seeking to address malnutrition in rural, food-insecure populations in Malawi and other low-income settings.

A vocational intervention that enhances return to work after severe acquired brain injury: A pragmatic trial.

BACKGROUND: Following a severe acquired brain injury, individuals often have low return to work rates. The Vocational Intervention Program (VIP), a partnership of Brain Injury Rehabilitation Program community rehabilitation centres with external vocational rehabilitation providers in New South Wales, Australia, was developed to facilitate a return to competitive employment for working-age people. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the efficacy of the VIP partnership model, this intervention was compared to outcomes from a health-based brain injury vocational rehabilitation centre (H-VR) or community brain injury rehabilitation centres ("treatment as usual"; TAU). METHODS: A 3-arm non-randomized controlled trial was conducted among the 12 adult rehabilitation centres of the NSW Brain Injury Rehabilitation Program. The VIP arm was delivered by 6 community rehabilitation centres in partnership with 3 external private Vocational Rehabilitation providers. The H-VR arm was delivered by 1 health-based vocational rehabilitation centre and the 5 remaining centres delivered TAU. Competitive employment status ("Yes"/"No") and clinician ratings of disability and participation were collected pre- and post-intervention, and at 3-month follow-up. Multilevel models were conducted to investigate change over time by treatment arm. RESULTS: In total, 148 individuals with severe brain injury were included in the trial: n = 75 (VIP), n = 33 (H-VR) and n = 40 (TAU). Sixty-five people (of 108, 60%) completed the VR intervention. A significant arm-by-time interaction was found, with higher return to work rates from pre- to post-intervention in VIP and H-VR arms compared to TAU (P = 0.0002). Significant arm-by-time interactions also indicated improved work-related participation and independent living skills from pre- to post-intervention in VIP and H-VR compared to the TAU arm (P < 0.05). These improvements were maintained at 3-month follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: The VIP improved return to competitive employment at comparable rates to the specialist H-VR. Larger-scale adoption of the VIP model could provide significant improvements in vocational rehabilition sevices to support people in their return to work following severe brain injury. ANZCTR TRIAL REGISTRY NUMBER: ACTRN12622000769785.

Tardigrades exhibit robust interlimb coordination across walking speeds and terrains.

Tardigrades must negotiate heterogeneous, fluctuating environments and accordingly utilize locomotive strategies capable of dealing with variable terrain. We analyze the kinematics and interleg coordination of freely walking tardigrades (species: Hypsibius exemplaris). We find that tardigrade walking replicates several key features of walking in insects despite disparities in size, skeleton, and habitat. To test the effect of environmental changes on tardigrade locomotor control circuits we measure kinematics and interleg coordination during walking on two substrates of different stiffnesses. We find that the phase offset between contralateral leg pairs is flexible, while ipsilateral coordination is preserved across environmental conditions. This mirrors similar results in insects and crustaceans. We propose that these functional similarities in walking coordination between tardigrades and arthropods is either due to a generalized locomotor control circuit common to panarthropods or to independent convergence onto an optimal strategy for robust multilegged control in small animals with simple circuitry. Our results highlight the value of tardigrades as a comparative system toward understanding the mechanisms-neural and/or mechanical-underlying coordination in panarthropod locomotion.

Integrating Agriculture and Health Research for Development: LCIRAH as an Interdisciplinary Programme to Address a Global Challenge.

The multiple burdens of persistent undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies, along with the rapidly growing rates of overweight, obesity, and associated chronic diseases, are major challenges globally. The role of agriculture and the food system in meeting these challenges is very poorly understood. Achieving food security and addressing malnutrition in all its forms, a Sustainable Development Goal, requires an understanding of how changing food systems affect health outcomes and the development of new tools to design and evaluate interventions. An interinstitutional programme to address this interdisciplinary research challenge is described. Over the past seven years, the Leverhulme Centre for Integrative Research on Agriculture and Health has built a portfolio of successful and innovative research, trained a new cadre of interdisciplinary researchers in "Agri-Health," and built an international research community with a particular focus on strengthening research capacity in low- and middle-income countries. The evolution of this programme is described, and key factors contributing to its success are discussed that may be of general value in designing interdisciplinary research programmes directed at supporting global development goals.

From kitchen to classroom: Assessing the impact of cleaner burning biomass-fuelled cookstoves on primary school attendance in Karonga district, northern Malawi.

Household air pollution from burning solid fuels is responsible for an estimated 2.9 million premature deaths worldwide each year and 4.5% of global disability-adjusted life years, while cooking and fuel collection pose a considerable time burden, particularly for women and children. Cleaner burning biomass-fuelled cookstoves have the potential to lower exposure to household air pollution as well as reduce fuelwood demand by increasing the combustion efficiency of cooking fires, which may in turn yield ancillary benefits in other domains. The present paper capitalises on opportunities offered by the Cooking and Pneumonia Study (CAPS), the largest randomised trial of biomass-fuelled cookstoves on health outcomes conducted to date, the design of which allows for the evaluation of additional outcomes at scale. This mixed methods study assesses the impact of cookstoves on primary school absenteeism in Karonga district, northern Malawi, in particular by conferring health and time and resource gains on young people aged 5-18. The analysis combines quantitative data from 6168 primary school students with in-depth interviews and focus group discussions carried out among 48 students in the same catchment area in 2016. Negative binomial regression models find no evidence that the cookstoves affected primary school absenteeism overall [IRR 0.92 (0.71-1.18), p = 0.51]. Qualitative analysis suggests that the cookstoves did not sufficiently improve household health to influence school attendance, while the time and resource burdens associated with cooking activities-although reduced in intervention households-were considered to be compatible with school attendance in both trial arms. More research is needed to assess whether the cookstoves influenced educational outcomes not captured by the attendance measure available, such as timely arrival to school or hours spent on homework.

Early access to vocational rehabilitation for inpatients with spinal cord injury: A qualitative study of staff perceptions.

INTRODUCTION: Early intervention is among the factors frequently associated with more positive vocational rehabilitation outcomes; however, vocational rehabilitation is not generally a core component of inpatient rehabilitation following spinal cord injury. OBJECTIVE: This qualitative study explored the opinions and perceptions of health professionals regarding InVoc, an early vocational rehabilitation intervention provided to spinal cord injury unit inpatients. The aim of this evaluation was to determine the critical elements of the InVoc programme, and whether it was perceived as successfully implemented in the hospital setting. METHODS: Twenty-five medical and allied health staff working in the 3 Spinal Cord Injury Units in New South Wales, Australia, participated in the qualitative study. Three staff focus-group discussions were conducted and data analysed thematically. RESULTS: Four themes emerged: timeliness of the intervention, support and advocacy, value of early intervention, and conflicting messages to patients. Three critical programme elements were identified: flexibility, coordinators working on the ward, and good communication between all staff. CONCLUSION: Early vocational rehabilitation was perceived as appropriate and successfully implemented in the spinal injury unit in-patient setting, addressing an existing gap in patient care. The InVoc programme was seen to assist patients identify the possibility of returning to work and/or education. The importance of programme flexibility was highlighted.

Why is malaria associated with poverty? Findings from a cohort study in rural Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Malaria control and sustainable development are linked, but implementation of 'multisectoral' intervention is restricted by a limited understanding of the causal pathways between poverty and malaria. We investigated the relationships between socioeconomic position (SEP), potential determinants of SEP, and malaria in Nagongera, rural Uganda. METHODS: Socioeconomic information was collected for 318 children aged six months to 10 years living in 100 households, who were followed for up to 36 months. Mosquito density was recorded using monthly light trap collections. Parasite prevalence was measured routinely every three months and malaria incidence determined by passive case detection. First, we evaluated the association between success in smallholder agriculture (the primary livelihood source) and SEP. Second, we explored socioeconomic risk factors for human biting rate (HBR), parasite prevalence and incidence of clinical malaria, and spatial clustering of socioeconomic variables. Third, we investigated the role of selected factors in mediating the association between SEP and malaria. RESULTS: Relative agricultural success was associated with higher SEP. In turn, high SEP was associated with lower HBR (highest versus lowest wealth index tertile: Incidence Rate Ratio 0.71, 95 % confidence intervals (CI) 0.54-0.93, P = 0.01) and lower odds of malaria infection in children (highest versus lowest wealth index tertile: adjusted Odds Ratio 0.52, 95 % CI 0.35-0.78, P = 0.001), but SEP was not associated with clinical malaria incidence. Mediation analysis suggested that part of the total effect of SEP on malaria infection risk was explained by house type (24.9 %, 95 % CI 15.8-58.6 %) and food security (18.6 %, 95 % CI 11.6-48.3 %); however, the assumptions of the mediation analysis may not have been fully met. CONCLUSION: Housing improvements and agricultural development interventions to reduce poverty merit further investigation as multisectoral interventions against malaria. Further interdisplinary research is needed to understand fully the complex pathways between poverty and malaria and to develop strategies for sustainable malaria control.

Leadership and team building in gastrointestinal endoscopy.

A modern endoscopy service delivers high volume procedures that can be daunting, embarrassing and uncomfortable for patients [1]. Endoscopy is hugely beneficial to patients but only if it is performed to high standards [2]. Some consequences of poor quality endoscopy include worse outcomes for cancer and gastrointestinal bleeding, unnecessary repeat procedures, needless damage to patients and even avoidable death [3]. New endoscopy technology and more rigorous decontamination procedures have made endoscopy more effective and safer, but they have placed additional demands on the service. Ever-scarcer resources require more efficient, higher turnover of patients, which can be at odds with a good patient experience, and with quality and safety. It is clear from the demands put upon it, that to deliver a modern endoscopy service requires effective leadership and team working [4]. This chapter explores what constitutes effective leadership and what makes great clinical teams. It makes the point that endoscopy services are not usually isolated, independent units, and as such are dependent for success on the organisations they sit within. It will explain how endoscopy services are affected by the wider policy and governance context. Finally, within the context of the collection of papers in this edition of Best Practice & Research: Clinical Gastroenterology, it explores the potentially conflicting relationship between training of endoscopists and service delivery. The effectiveness of leadership and teams is rarely the subject of classic experimental designs such as randomized controlled trials. Nevertheless there is a substantial literature on this subject within and particularly outside healthcare [5]. The authors draw on this wider, more diffuse literature and on their experience of delivering a Team Leadership Programme (TLP) to the leaders of 70 endoscopy teams during the period 2008-2012. (Team Leadership Programme Link-http://www.qsfh.co.uk/Page.aspx?PageId=Public).

Measuring Socioeconomic Inequalities in Relation to Malaria Risk: A Comparison of Metrics in Rural Uganda.

Socioeconomic position (SEP) is an important risk factor for malaria, but there is no consensus on how to measure SEP in malaria studies. We evaluated the relative strength of four indicators of SEP in predicting malaria risk in Nagongera, Uganda. A total of 318 children resident in 100 households were followed for 36 months to measure parasite prevalence routinely every 3 months and malaria incidence by passive case detection. Household SEP was determined using: 1) two wealth indices, 2) income, 3) occupation, and 4) education. Wealth Index I (reference) included only asset ownership variables. Wealth Index II additionally included food security and house construction variables, which may directly affect malaria. In multivariate analysis, only Wealth Index II and income were associated with the human biting rate, only Wealth Indices I and II were associated with parasite prevalence, and only caregiver's education was associated with malaria incidence. This is the first evaluation of metrics beyond wealth and consumption indices for measuring the association between SEP and malaria. The wealth index still predicted malaria risk after excluding variables directly associated with malaria, but the strength of association was lower. In this setting, wealth indices, income, and education were stronger predictors of socioeconomic differences in malaria risk than occupation.

Early Access to Vocational Rehabilitation for Inpatients with Spinal Cord Injury: A Qualitative Study of Patients' Perceptions.

Background: A pilot early-intervention vocational rehabilitation program was conducted in Sydney, Australia, over a 2-year period. It was postulated that the early provision of integrated vocational rehabilitation services in the hospital settings for newly injured individuals would be well received and result in better employment and psychosocial health outcomes. Objective: The objective of this qualitative inquiry was to examine the perspectives of program participants who had completed the intervention about the timeliness, perceived value, and critical elements of the early intervention. Methods: A convenience sample of participants was selected by accessibility; participants were interviewed individually after discharge using a semi-structured approach. Transcripts of the interviews were created via audio recordings; interviews were transcribed verbatim, and the contents were analyzed thematically. Results: Thirteen participants aged from 19 to 60 years with varying levels of impairment and vocational backgrounds were interviewed from 7 to 21 months post injury. Overall, the early introduction of vocational rehabilitation services was well received and viewed positively. Emerging themes include sense of direction and distraction, advocacy, and support, with "hope" (early after injury) emerging as the overarching theme. Criticisms voiced about the program were that it was offered too early in the intensive care unit and there were competing interests and information overload in the early recovery phase. Conclusions: Vocational rehabilitation provided during inpatient rehabilitation appears appropriate, important, and valuable from patients' perspective. Early engagement results in feelings of hope and encourages patients to see the possibility of returning to work or education very early after injury, and it allows rehabilitation to be directed accordingly.

Early access to vocational rehabilitation for spinal cord injury inpatients.

OBJECTIVES: To describe a novel early vocational rehabilitation programme (In-Voc) for inpatients with spinal cord injury and to report early vocational outcomes. DESIGN: Observational longitudinal cohort study. SUBJECTS: One hundred adults with spinal cord injury admitted to spinal units in Sydney, Australia within a 24-month period. METHODS: In-Voc was offered to all inpatients within the first 6 months of acquired spinal cord injury and was provided by trained vocational consultants. Baseline demographics, opinions about work readiness, details of the vocational services provided and preliminary employment outcomes were documented. RESULTS: The In-Voc programme was relatively short in duration (median 11 weeks, range 3-39 weeks) with a median total of 9.1 h (range 1-75.2 h) of service delivered per participant. At case closure (median 3 weeks post-discharge), 29/84 (34.5%) of participants were in paid employment (7% full-time, 8% part-time, 7% on sick leave, and 12% working with hours unknown), 36% were unemployed (6% seeking work, 16% not seeking work, 14% job seeking status unknown), 13% were students or in-training, and 17% were in vocational rehabilitation. CONCLUSION: Our research suggests that implementing an early vocational rehabilitation programme with individuals in the hospital setting is feasible and has good potential for enhancing post-injury labour-force participation.

Suicidality in Australian Vietnam veterans and their partners.

Lifetime suicidality was assessed in a cohort of 448 ageing Australian Vietnam veterans and 237 female partners during in-person structured psychiatric interviews that permitted direct comparison with age-sex matched Australian population statistics. Relative risks for suicidal ideation, planning and attempts were 7.9, 9.7 and 13.8 times higher for veterans compared with the Australian population and for partners were 6.2, 3.5 and 6.0 times higher. Odds ratios between psychiatric diagnoses and suicidality were computed using multivariate logistic regression, and suicidality severity scores were assigned from ideation, planning and attempt, and analysed using ordinal regression. PTSD, depression alcohol disorders, phobia and agoraphobia were prominent predictors of ideation, attempts and suicidal severity among veterans, while depression, PTSD, social phobia and panic disorder were prominent predictors among partners. For veterans and their partners, PTSD is a risk factor for suicidality even in the presence of other psychiatric disorders, and is stronger in Vietnam veterans than their partners.

Chemical variability along the value chains of turmeric (Curcuma longa): a comparison of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and high performance thin layer chromatography.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Herbal medicine value chains have generally been overlooked compared with food commodities. Not surprisingly, revenue generation tends to be weighted towards the end of the chain and consequently the farmers and producers are the lowest paid beneficiaries. Value chains have an impact both on the livelihood of producers and on the composition and quality of products commonly sold locally and globally and consequently on the consumers. In order to understand the impact of value chains on the composition of products, we studied the production conditions for turmeric (Curcuma longa) and the metabolomic composition of products derived from it. We aimed at integrating these two components in order to gain a better understanding of the effect of different value chains on the livelihoods of some producers. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This interdisciplinary project uses a mixed methods approach. Case studies were undertaken on two separate sites in India. Data was initially gathered on herbal medicine value chains by means of semi-structured interviews and non-participant observations. Samples were collected from locations in India, Europe and the USA and analysed using (1)H NMR spectroscopy coupled with multivariate analysis software and with high performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC). RESULTS: We investigate medicinal plant value chains and interpret the impact different value chains have on some aspects of the livelihoods of producers in India and, for the first time, analytically assess the chemical variability and quality implications that different value chains may have on the products available to end users in Europe. There are benefits to farmers that belonged to an integrated chain and the resulting products were subject to a higher standard of processing and storage. By using analytical methods, including HPTLC and (1)H NMR spectroscopy, it has been possible to correlate some variations in product composition for selected producers and identify strengths and weaknesses of some types of value chains. The two analytical techniques provide different and complementary data and together they can be used to effectively differentiate between a wide variety of crude drug powders and herbal medicinal products. CONCLUSIONS: This project demonstrates that there is a need to study the links between producers and consumers of commodities produced in so-called 'provider countries' and that metabolomics offer a novel way of assessing the chemical variability along a value chain. This also has implications for understanding the impact this has on the livelihood of those along the value chain.

Agriculture for improved nutrition: the current research landscape.

BACKGROUND: Concern about food security and its effect on persistent undernutrition has increased interest in how agriculture could be used to improve nutritional outcomes in developing countries. Yet the evidence base for the impact of agricultural interventions targeted at improved nutrition is currently poor. OBJECTIVE: To map the extent and nature of current and planned research on agriculture for improved nutrition in order to identify gaps where more research might be useful. METHODS: The research, which was conducted from April to August 2012, involved developing a conceptual framework linking agriculture and nutrition, identifying relevant research projects and programs, devising and populating a "template" with details of the research projects in relation to the conceptual framework, classifying the projects, and conducting a gap analysis. RESULTS: The study identified a large number of research projects covering a broad range of themes and topics. There was a strong geographic focus on sub-Saharan Africa, and many studies were explicitly concerned with nutritional impacts on women and children. Although the study revealed a diverse and growing body of research, it also identified research gaps. Few projects consider the entire evidence chain linking agricultural input or practice to nutritional outcomes. There is comparatively little current research on indirect effects of agriculture on nutrition, or the effect of policies or governance, rather than technical interventions. Most research is focused on undernutrition and small farmer households, and few studies target consumers generally, urban populations, or nutrition-related non-communicable diseases. There is very little work on the cost-effectiveness of agricultural interventions. CONCLUSIONS: On the basis of these findings, we make suggestions for research investment and for broader engagement of researchers and disciplines in developing approaches to design and evaluate agricultural programs for improved nutrition.

Adult separation anxiety during pregnancy and its relationship to depression and anxiety.

AIMS: The current study, the first of its kind, investigated the overlap between adult separation anxiety (ASA) and the symptoms of depression and anxiety in the context of pregnancy. METHODS: Women attending an antenatal clinic were screened using the Adult Separation Anxiety Scale (ASA-27). As most perinatal clinics use the Edinburgh Depression Scale (EDS), this study explored the relationship between ASA and the anxiety and depression symptoms by comparing the ASA-27 scores with the scores on the EDS. A subsample including both screen positives and screen negatives on ASA-27 was clinically interviewed using the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI). RESULTS: Women with ASA were significantly more likely to be screened positive for depression (EDS total score) and anxiety (EDS-3A anxiety subscale) than those without ASA. The diagnosis of ASA disorder in this population had only a moderate but significant association with the diagnoses of generalized anxiety disorder [χ2 (1) = 25.9, P = 0.000, Φ = 0.443] and major depression [χ2 (1) = 16, P = 0.000, Φ = 0.348] made using the MINI. CONCLUSION: Adult separation anxiety warrants independent assessment in order to tailor appropriate interventions for the individual subtypes of anxiety in the perinatal period.

Adult separation anxiety in pregnancy: how common is it?

The present study, the first to examine adult separation anxiety (ASA) in the context of pregnancy, found that ASA is a common yet unrecognized condition. Women attending an antenatal clinic were evaluated for the presence of ASA. A quarter of the women reached an established symptom threshold for ASA, with significantly more primigravida women (P = 0.003) identified as having the problem. There were no significant differences in the sociodemographic characteristics between those with and without ASA. Around one-third acknowledged that ASA was causing significant impairment in day-to-day functioning, suggesting the clinical importance of the pattern. Further research is indicated to explore this clinical entity and its impact on maternal and infant psychosocial wellbeing.

Measuring socio-economic position for epidemiological studies in low- and middle-income countries: a methods of measurement in epidemiology paper.

Much has been written about the measurement of socio-economic position (SEP) in high-income countries (HIC). Less has been written for an epidemiology, health systems and public health audience about the measurement of SEP in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). The social stratification processes in many LMIC-and therefore the appropriate measurement tools-differ considerably from those in HIC. Many measures of SEP have been utilized in epidemiological studies; the aspects of SEP captured by these measures and the pathways through which they may affect health are likely to be slightly different but overlapping. No single measure of SEP will be ideal for all studies and contexts; the strengths and limitations of a given indicator are likely to vary according to the specific research question. Understanding the general properties of different indicators, however, is essential for all those involved in the design or interpretation of epidemiological studies. In this article, we describe the measures of SEP used in LMIC. We concentrate on measures of individual or household-level SEP rather than area-based or ecological measures such as gross domestic product. We describe each indicator in terms of its theoretical basis, interpretation, measurement, strengths and limitations. We also provide brief comparisons between LMIC and HIC for each measure.

Value chains of herbal medicines--research needs and key challenges in the context of ethnopharmacology.

BACKGROUND: Value chain analyses are commonly used to understand socioeconomic and power relationships in the production chain from the initial starting material to a final (generally high value) product. These analyses help in terms of understanding economic processes but also have been used in the context of socioeconomic and socioecological research. AIMS OF THE STUDY: However, there is a gap in the ethnopharmacological literature in terms of understanding what relevance a critical analysis of value chains of herbal medicines could have. Here we provide a research framework for achieving such an analysis. METHODS: An extensive review of the literature available on value chains and their analysis was conducted, based both on a systematic online search of the relevant literature and a hand search of bibliographies and discussions with experts in value chain analysis RESULTS: While the concept of value chains is commonly used in the relevant industries, very few studies investigate the value chains of herbal medicines and products derived from them. The studies identified mostly look at socio-ecological aspects, especially in the context of sustainable resource use. We suggest an analytical framework which can help in understanding value chains in the context of ethnopharmacology and can serve as a basis for addressing questions related to value chains and their relevance in ethnopharmacology. CONCLUSIONS: We identified a crucial gap in current ethnopharmacological and medicinal plant research which impacts on a wide-range of factors relevant for a sustainable, socio-culturally equitable and safe supply of herbal medicines.

Linking migration, mobility and HIV.

Population mobility is commonly identified as a key driver of the HIV epidemic, both linking geographically separate epidemics and intensifying transmission through inducing riskier sexual behaviours. However, beyond the well-known case studies of South African miners and East African truck drivers, the evidence on the links between HIV and mobility is nuanced, contradictory and inconclusive and is in part attributed to the abstract definitions of mobility used in different studies. This problematic conception of mobility, with no reference to who moves, their motivations for moving, or the characteristics of sending and receiving areas, can have a dramatic impact on how one understands the influence which this structural factor has on HIV risk in different settings. Future research on mobility and HIV transmission must incorporate an understanding of migration and mobility as dynamic processes and link different patterns and forms of mobility with location-specific sexual networks and HIV epidemiology.