Soluble metal porphyrins - Zero-valent zinc system for effective reductive defluorination of branched per and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs).

Nano zero-valent metals (nZVMs) have been extensively utilized for decades in the reductive remediation of groundwater contaminated with chlorinated organic compounds, owing to their robust reducing capabilities, simple application, and cost-effectiveness. Nevertheless, there remains a dearth of information regarding the efficient reductive defluorination of linear or branched per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) using nZVMs as reductants, largely due to the absence of appropriate catalysts. In this work, various soluble porphyrin ligands [[meso­tetra(4-carboxyphenyl)porphyrinato]cobalt(III)]Cl·7H2O (CoTCPP), [[meso­tetra(4-sulfonatophenyl) porphyrinato]cobalt(III)]·9H2O (CoTPPS), and [[meso­tetra(4-N-methylpyridyl) porphyrinato]cobalt(II)](I)4·4H2O (CoTMpyP) have been explored for defluorination of PFASs in the presence of the nZn0 as reductant. Among these, the cationic CoTMpyP showed best defluorination efficiencies for br-perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) (94%), br-perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) (89%), and 3,7-Perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA) (60%) after 1 day at 70 °C. The defluorination rate constant of this system (CoTMpyP-nZn0) is 88-164 times higher than the VB12-nZn0 system for the investigated br-PFASs. The CoTMpyP-nZn0 also performed effectively at room temperature (55% for br-PFOS, 55% for br-PFOA and 25% for 3,7-PFDA after 1day), demonstrating the great potential of in-situ application. The effect of various solubilizing substituents, electron transfer flow and corresponding PFASs defluorination pathways in the CoTMpyP-nZn0 system were investigated by both experiments and density functional theory (DFT) calculations. SYNOPSIS: Due to the unavailability of active catalysts, available information on reductive remediation of PFAS by zero-valent metals (ZVMs) is still inadequate. This study explores the effective defluorination of various branched PFASs using soluble porphyrin-ZVM systems and offers a systematic approach for designing the next generation of catalysts for PFAS remediation.

The formation of sulfate-green rust through Fe(II) sorption to montmorillonite: Impacts on abiotic nitrate reduction.

Green rust (GR) minerals are generally considered to be effective reductants of pollutants and the electron transfer from aqueous Fe(II) to structural Fe(III) in montmorillonite has recently been discovered to be a pathway to GR formation at pH ∼7.8. In this study, we have further delineated the pH conditions and examined the effect of aqueous sulfate concentrations that allow for the formation of sulfate-GR through this unique pathway. Iron(II) sorption experiments demonstrated that the amount of 'sorbed' Fe(II) on montmorillonite semi-quantitatively transformed into sulfate-GR at pH values ≥7.5 in the presence of environmentally-relevant sulfate concentrations (i.e., 10 mM). However, excess sulfate concentrations (100 mM) resulted in comparatively less Fe(II) sorption and sulfate-GR was only observed to form at pH 8. As such, it was concluded that the degree of Fe(II) sorption to montmorillonite is critical to GR formation when aqueous Fe(II) and montmorillonite co-exist. In contrast to sulfate-GR minerals formed through other pathways (e.g., co-precipitation of dissolved Fe(II) and Fe(III) species), this montmorillonite-synthesized GR was significantly less reactive towards nitrate reduction, with <2.5 % of 0.2 mM nitrate being reduced over a 6-day period. This behaviour was correlated to reduction potential and it was, therefore, concluded that the relatively high reduction potential that occurs in the presence of montmorillonite exerts a significant influence on the rate of nitrate reduction by sulfate-GR to the point that it may not be a competitive process to microbiological nitrate denitrification. As such, the environmental relevance of green rust to nitrate reduction cannot be inferred simply by its presence, but rather the reduction potential of the environmental system in which it is found.

Intimate Partner Violence and Barriers to Help-Seeking Among Black, Asian, Minority Ethnic and Immigrant Women: A Qualitative Metasynthesis of Global Research.

It is well known that victims of intimate partner violence experience numerous barriers to leaving abusive relationships. For ethnic minority and immigrant women these barriers are significantly exacerbated. This metasynthesis explored barriers to help-seeking as experienced by Black, Asian, minority ethnic and immigrant women with experience of intimate partner violence. A review of worldwide literature published in English in peer-reviewed journals on this topic from 2000 to July 2020 produced 2597 relevant articles. After removing duplicates and applying the exclusion criteria, a total of 47 articles were selected for inclusion in the review. The synthesis found that these women faced additional barriers as a result of institutional racism, immigration laws, culture and religion, and issues of cultural competence, and lack of diversity within frontline services. Such barriers, from a range of formal and informal resources, services and other mechanisms of support, served to exacerbate feelings of fear, threat, isolation and powerlessness. The barriers were also further weaponised by perpetrators in order to extend their reign of terror and control. As a result, women were caught in a double-bind - stay in an abusive relationship or face further threats and consequences if they attempted to leave. Whilst our search criteria focused on barriers to help-seeking, many of the papers included in our synthesis also explored facilitators to help-seeking, which are included in our findings and overwhelmingly relate to informal support from females.

Continuous Traumatic Stress: Examining the Experiences and Support Needs of Women After Separation From an Abusive Partner.

Intimate partner violence causes significant, long-lasting harm to almost one-third (27%) of the world's population of women. Even when women leave abusive relationships, some men continue to exercise control over their ex-partners through psychological control, threats, violence, stalking, and other forms of harassment. In this qualitative study, 52 purposively sampled women who self-identified as victims or survivors of intimate partner violence (IPV) from male partners were interviewed. Data were analyzed with a theoretically informed thematic analysis, supported by Nvivo® software. We found that leaving a violent relationship was a long-term process fraught with difficulty and ongoing risks of psychological harm. The concept of Continuous Traumatic Stress (CTS), first developed to understand the impact of state-sponsored violence and war, was found to be a particularly useful tool for the analysis of the impact of post-separation abuse. Additionally, CTS encourages researchers and practitioners to think anew about resilience-centered approaches to improving protection and access to justice for female victims.

Understanding Violence Against Women in the Caribbean Through an Exploration of Men's Perspectives.

Qualitative research with 60 males (16-80 years) from two Caribbean countries was carried out to explore men's perspectives on domestic violence (DV). An inductive latent/thematic approach to data analysis supported by analytic software led to five key domains being identified: (1) meanings of violence; (2) patrinormative culture; (3) normalization of violence; (4) male victimization; and (5) blame attribution and empathy. Patriarchal values, together with childhood exposure to violence, were found to reduce empathic capacity and contribute to the normalization of DV. In addition, the minimization of male victimization and the lack of behavior-change support services for men were identified as contributory factors.

Efficient Reductive Defluorination of Branched PFOS by Metal-Porphyrin Complexes.

Vitamin B12 (VB12) has been reported to degrade PFOS in the presence of TiIII citrate at 70 °C. Porphyrin-based catalysts have emerged as VB12 analogues and have been successfully used in various fields of research due to their interesting structural and electronic properties. However, there is inadequate information on the use of these porphyrin-based metal complexes in the defluorination of PFOS. We have therefore explored a series of porphyrin-based metal complexes for the degradation of PFOS. CoII-5,10,15,20-tetraphenyl-21H,23H-porphyrin (CoII-TPP), CoII-5,10,15,20-tetrakis(4-methoxyphenyl)-21H,23H-porphyrin (CoII-M-TPP), and CoIII-M-TPP exhibited efficient reductive defluorination of the branched PFOS. Within 5-8 h, these compounds achieved the same level of PFOS defluorination as VB12 achieved in 7-10 days. For branched isomers, the specific removal rate of the CoII-TPP-TiIII citrate system is 64-105 times higher than that for VB12-TiIII citrate. Moreover, the CoII-TPP-TiIII citrate system displayed efficient (51%) defluorination for the branched PFOS (br-PFOS) in 1 day even at room temperature (25 °C). The effects of the iron and cobalt metal centers, reaction pH, and several reductants (NaBH4, nanosized zerovalent zinc (nZn0), and TiIII citrate) were systematically investigated. Based on the analysis of the products and previously published reports, a new possible defluorination pathway of branched PFOS is also proposed.

Profiles of abuse and neglect and the association with mental health indicators among a large sample of boys and girls from India.

BACKGROUND: Child abuse and neglect (CAN) is a major public health concern, but limited data are available on the occurrence, co-occurrence, and correlates of these phenomena outside Western societies. OBJECTIVES: The first aim of this study was to establish the prevalence of CAN across two settings (inside and outside the home) among children and adolescents in Mumbai, India. Another aim was to use latent class analysis (LCA) to identify meaningful profiles of maltreatment, and to examine how class membership is associated with mental wellbeing. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: Self-report data was collected from males (n = 4454; Mage = 12.77 years) and females (n = 3850; Mage = 12.87) at secondary schools. RESULTS: Four latent classes of maltreatment were identified among males, including 'low victimisation' (50.4% of participants), 'intra-familial non-sexual abuse' (34.6%), 'intra- and extra- familial non-sexual abuse' (10.2%), and 'poly-victimisation' (4.8%). Among females, three latent classes were identified including, 'low victimisation' (68.1%), 'intra-familial non-sexual abuse' (28.8%), and 'poly-victimisation' (3.0%). Compared to the 'low victimisation' class, children in the abuse classes demonstrated higher levels of anxiety and depression and increased odds of self-injurious thoughts and behaviours. These associations were augmented for girls relative to boys. CONCLUSION: There were very few maltreated children who were subjected to just one form of CAN and experiencing co-occurring patterns of abuse and neglect was associated with indicators of poor mental health, especially among girls. These findings highlight the complexity of the situation and will inform policy makers, health professionals and school counsellors.

Fe(II) Redox Chemistry in the Environment.

Iron (Fe) is the fourth most abundant element in the earth's crust and plays important roles in both biological and chemical processes. The redox reactivity of various Fe(II) forms has gained increasing attention over recent decades in the areas of (bio) geochemistry, environmental chemistry and engineering, and material sciences. The goal of this paper is to review these recent advances and the current state of knowledge of Fe(II) redox chemistry in the environment. Specifically, this comprehensive review focuses on the redox reactivity of four types of Fe(II) species including aqueous Fe(II), Fe(II) complexed with ligands, minerals bearing structural Fe(II), and sorbed Fe(II) on mineral oxide surfaces. The formation pathways, factors governing the reactivity, insights into potential mechanisms, reactivity comparison, and characterization techniques are discussed with reference to the most recent breakthroughs in this field where possible. We also cover the roles of these Fe(II) species in environmental applications of zerovalent iron, microbial processes, biogeochemical cycling of carbon and nutrients, and their abiotic oxidation related processes in natural and engineered systems.

HearNPV susceptibility in Helicoverpa armigera and Helicoverpa punctigera strains resistant to Bt toxins Cry1Ac, Cry2Ab, and Vip3Aa.

Genetically engineered crops expressing insecticidal toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) have improved the management of targeted lepidopteran pests and reduced the use of insecticide sprays. These benefits explain an increasing adoption of Bt crops worldwide, intensifying the selection pressure on target species and the risk of resistance. Nucleopolyhedroviruses (NPVs) are effective bioinsecticides against numerous important lepidopteran pests. If Bt-resistant insects are shown to be susceptible to NPVs then these bioinsecticides could be a valuable component of Insecticide Resistance Management (IRM) strategies for Bt crops. We assessed the effectiveness of a Helicoverpa nucleopolyhedrovirus (HearNPV) against several different Bt-resistant strains. Utilising a droplet feeding bioassay we confirmed susceptibility to HearNPV in Helicoverpa punctigera and Helicoverpa armigera larvae resistant to the Bt toxins Cry1Ac, Cry2Ab, and Vip3A. Dual resistant H. punctigera, (Cry1Ac/Cry2Ab, and Cry2Ab/Vip3A) and dual resistant H. armigera (Cry2Ab/Vip3A) were also susceptible to HearNPV. Regardless of their specific resistance profile, Bt-resistant larvae displayed statistically similar lethal concentration (LC50) and lethal time (LT50) responses to HearNPV when compared to Bt-sensitive control insects. These results indicate that Bt-resistant H. armigera and H. punctigera are not cross-resistant to HearNPV. Consequently, the use of HearNPV against these pests may be a valuable tool to an IRM strategy for controlling Bt-resistant populations.

Child Sexual Abuse as Lifespan Trauma Within the Context of Intimate Partner Violence: Experiences of Caribbean Women.

Background: There is a dearth of research which explores sexual abuse from perspectives of Caribbean women, despite its high prevalence in the region. While sexual violence is universal, tackling it requires a deep understanding of the contextual specificities in which it arises and of the intersections of gender with other sources of oppression and marginalisation. It also calls for the recognition that intimate partner violence against women is not separate from, but linked to violence against girls, not only because both are forms of gender-based violence but because together they speak to its historical, persistent and accumulative effects. Methods: In-depth intensive interviews were carried out with 35 women from Barbados and Grenada, aged 18-60 years who had experienced intimate partner violence under one of the following circumstances: during pregnancy (n = 15), as a woman a with disability (n = 8), as a woman living with HIV (n = 12). Interviews were digitally recorded, transcribed and thematically analyzed. Results: The participants experienced multiple forms of violence within their relationships, often concurrently. Twenty-one of the women had been subject to sexual violence and of these, 19 had experienced sexual abuse as children; these experiences were viewed as interconnected and bolstered by the high level of violence-acceptance reported within communities. Women were subject to different forms of control by their partners depending upon prevailing discourses related to their circumstances (as pregnant, disabled, or HIV positive); being 'vulnerable' was synonymous with having one's agency as an independent, autonomous person constrained and little external help was available. Conclusion: The study identified a clear chain of sexual behaviors, each of which fuel different layers of the problem: the prevalence of early sexualization of children is associated with the prevalence of child sexual abuse; child sexual abuse is pervasive in large part, because of the normalisation and social acceptance of violence against women and girls; "cultural" normalcy, in turn, fuels attitudes which contribute to sexual violence against women and women in especially vulnerable circumstances face additional risks. Integrated policy, which tackles these as interconnected issues is called for.

Gender-Based Violence-Supportive Cognitions in Adolescent Girls and Boys: The Function of Violence Exposure and Victimization.

Violence against women and girls is widespread in the Caribbean, which may be due to heightened acceptance of such acts in this specific social context. In spite of this, studies investigating attitudes toward violence and their correlates among participants drawn from the region are missing. To address this void in the literature, we examined associations between violence exposure and victimization and two gender-based violence-related cognitions (attitudes toward male physical domestic violence and social norms regarding physical violence against girls) as well as general beliefs about violence using structural equation modeling. Participants were a sample of adolescent girls (n = 661; M age = 13.15) and boys (n = 639; M age = 13.22) from two Eastern Caribbean countries, Barbados and Grenada, recruited from 10 primary schools, nine secondary schools, and two youth offender centers. In considering that girls and boys were previously demonstrated to differ in their experiences as well as tolerance of violence, structural models were specified and tested separately for the two sexes. Results indicated that violence victimization was positively strongly associated with attitudes toward male physical domestic violence and social norms regarding physical violence against girls among boys. Increased violence victimization among girls, in turn, correlated with increased acceptance of social norms regarding physical violence against girls, but this relationship was weak. Violence exposure did not have any significant associations with any of the attitudinal variables included in the study. We discuss the importance of these findings for the development of appropriate gender-based violence prevention strategies for youths from the Eastern Caribbean.

Is Female Psychopathy Linked with Child Abuse? An Empirical Investigation using a Person-Centered Approach.

Childhood abuse is associated with increased psychopathic features among girls, but most prior research is based on data from correctional samples of female delinquents and less is known about how specific forms of childhood abuse affect specific features of psychopathy. Using a school-based community sample of 696 girls aged 9-17 years from Barbados and Grenada, the current study examined latent profiles of psychopathic personality traits and their associations with physical, emotional, and sexual abuse. Latent profile analysis (LPA) revealed four distinct psychopathy groups among girls, including a 'low psychopathy' group (41.9% of girls), 'high psychopathy' group (4.8%), 'high interpersonal manipulation and egocentricity' group (37.4%), and a 'moderate psychopathy' group (16%). There was considerable evidence of physical abuse, emotional abuse, and sexual abuse among participants. Sexual abuse was associated with a 116% increased likelihood of membership in the high psychopathy group and a 57% increased likelihood of membership in the high interpersonal manipulation and egocentricity group. These results indicate that sexual abuse is a powerful distal factor in the development of psychopathic personality functioning, especially more severe variants.

Flow-Electrode CDI Removes the Uncharged Ca-UO2-CO3 Ternary Complex from Brackish Potable Groundwater: Complex Dissociation, Transport, and Sorption.

Unacceptably high uranium concentrations in decentralized and remote potable groundwater resources, especially those of high hardness (e.g ., high Ca2+, Mg2+, and CO32- concentrations), are a common worldwide problem. The complexation of alkali earth metals, carbonate, and uranium(VI) results in the formation of thermodynamically stable ternary aqueous species that are predominantly neutrally charged (e.g ., Ca2(UO2)(CO3)30). The removal of the uncharged (nonadsorbing) complexes is a problematic issue for many water treatment technologies. As such, we have evaluated the efficacy of a recently developed electrochemical technology, termed flow-electrode capacitive deionization (FCDI), to treat a synthetic groundwater, the composition of which is comparable to groundwater resources in the Northern Territory, Australia (and elsewhere worldwide). Theoretical calculations and time-resolved laser fluorescence spectroscopy analyses confirmed that Ca2(UO2)(CO3)30 was the primary aqueous species followed by Ca(UO2)(CO3)32- (at circumneutral pH values). Results under different operating conditions demonstrated that FCDI is versatile in reducing uranium concentrations to <10 µg L-1 with low electrical consumption (e.g ., ∼0.1 kWh m-3). It is concluded that the capability of FCDI to remove uranium under these common conditions depends on the dissociation kinetics of the Ca2(UO2)(CO3)30 complex in the electrical field. The subsequent formation of the negatively charged Ca(UO2)(CO3)32- species results in the efficient transport of uranium across the anion exchange membrane followed by immobilization on the positively charged flow (anode) electrode.

Ligand-mediated contaminant degradation by bare and carboxymethyl cellulose-coated bimetallic palladium-zero valent iron nanoparticles in high salinity environments.

The application of nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) for the degradation of contaminants has been extensively investigated, however, few studies have focused on degradation in high salinity environments. In this study, the ability of bare and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)-coated bimetallic Pd-nZVI particles to degrade 33'44'-tetrachlorobiphenyl in high saline water (SW) is examined with particular attention given to the effects of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) on the rate of degradation. EDTA enhances the reactivity of Pd-nZVI in SW, with evidence provided to link this to the removal of the passivating layer. Additionally, a conceptual model is proposed which provides a quantitative description of the removal of these iron oxide layers in the presence of EDTA. An optimum EDTA to bare Pd-nZVI molar ratio of 0.1 exists, with insufficient EDTA unable to remove the passivating layer whilst excess EDTA results in Fe loss and enhanced agglomeration due to magnetic attraction of the bare Fe(0) particles. In contrast, CMC-coating of Pd-nZVI assemblages actually impedes degradation, despite the coated particles displaying a smaller average size compared to uncoated particles, with even the presence of EDTA in this case not significantly improving degradation. The reduced reactivity in the presence of CMC is primarily attributed to the effect of CMC on the association of Pd with nZVI particles. In particular, the presence of CMC reduced the total amount of Pd incorporated with the stabilized particles compared to the non-stabilized particles. Additionally, the presence of CMC results in less Pd present in its reactive zero-valent oxidation state.

Oxidant Generation Resulting from the Interaction of Copper with Menadione (Vitamin K3)-a Model for Metal-mediated Oxidant Generation in Living Systems.

The oxidation of hydroquinones is of interest both due to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and to the implications to trace metal redox state. Menadione (MNQ), a typical toxicant quinone used extensively for studying the mechanisms underlying oxidative stress, is known to be an effective source of exogenous ROS. In this study, the kinetics and mechanism of the oxidation of menadiol (MNH2Q, the reduced form of MNQ) in the absence and presence of copper (Cu) over the pH range 6.0-7.5 was examined. The autoxidation rate increased with increasing pH and concentration of O2 and also slightly increased with increasing concentration of MNH2Q and MNQ with Cu shown to play a significant role in catalysing the oxidation of MNH2Q. A kinetic model showed that the mono-deprotonated menadiol, MNHQ-, accounted for the pH dependence of the autoxidation rate. In this proposed mechanism, both MNH2Q and MNHQ- species were oxidized quickly by Cu(II), generating menadione semiquinone (MNSQ•-) and superoxide (O2•-) and the reduced form of Cu, Cu(I). Oxygen not only facilitated the catalytic role of Cu(II) by rapidly regenerating Cu(II) but also effectively removed MSNQ•-, generating the important chain-propagating species O2•-. The model demonstrated that Cu(I) was a significant sink of O2•- resulting in the generation of H2O2 with subsequent generation of highly oxidative intermediates including Cu(III). These results provide considerable insight into the clinical significance of the biological activation and detoxification of MNQ with the kinetic model developed of use in identifying key processes in the generation of harmful oxidants in living systems.

Investigating the effect of ascorbate on the Fe(II)-catalyzed transformation of the poorly crystalline iron mineral ferrihydrite.

The inorganic core of the iron storage protein, ferritin, is recognized as being analogous to the poorly crystalline iron mineral, ferrihydrite (Fh). Fh is also abundant in soils where it is central to the redox cycling of particular soil contaminants and trace elements. In geochemical circles, it is recognized that Fh can undergo Fe(II)-catalyzed transformation to form more crystalline iron minerals, vastly altering the reactivity of the iron oxide and, in some cases, the redox poise of the system. Of relevance to both geochemical and biological systems, we investigate here if the naturally occurring reducing agent, ascorbate, can effect such an Fe(II)-catalyzed transformation of Fh at 25 °C and circumneutral pH. The transformation of ferrihydrite to possible secondary Fe(III) mineralization products was quantified using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, with supporting data obtained using X-ray absorbance spectroscopy (XAS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Whilst the amount of Fe(II) formed in the presence of ascorbate has resulted in Fh transformation in previous studies, no transformation of Fh to more crystalline Fe(III) (oxyhydr)oxides was observed in this study. Further experiments indicated this was due to the ability of ascorbate to inhibit the formation of goethite, lepidocrocite and magnetite. The manner in which ascorbate associated with Fh was investigated using FTIR and total organic carbon (TOC) analysis. The majority of ascorbate was found to adsorb to the Fh surface under anoxic conditions but, under oxic conditions, ascorbate was initially adsorbed then became incorporated within the Fe(III) (oxyhydr)oxide structure (i.e., co-precipitated) over time.

Factor Structure and Factorial Invariance of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire among Children of Prisoners and their Parents.

Parental imprisonment has been linked to a variety of adverse psychological outcomes for children and adolescents. The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) has been widely used to assess behavioural and emotional difficulties among 7-17 year olds in the general population and more recently has been utilised among samples of children of prisoners. Previous research has variously tested traditional one-, three- and five- factor solutions to the SDQ, and more recently one bifactor solution has been examined. Based on a sample of children of prisoners (N = 724) and their non-imprisoned parent or caregiver (N = 658), the aim of the present study was to simultaneously compare nine alternative factor structures, including previously tested models and alternative bifactor solutions. Tests of factorial invariance and composite reliability were also performed. The five-factor model was found to provide the best fit for the data. Tests of factorial invariance revealed that the five-factor model provided an equally acceptable, but not identical fit, among boys and girls. Composite reliability scores were low for the Conduct Problems and Peer Problems subscales. The utility of the SDQ in measuring psychological functioning in response to parental imprisonment is discussed.

Profiles and behavioral consequences of child abuse among adolescent girls and boys from Barbados and Grenada.

The current study used latent class analysis to uncover groups of youths with specific abuse (physical, emotional, and sexual) profiles in and outside the family, and identify how membership in each abuse group is associated with behavioral outcomes. Data were collected among a sample of male (n = 662; Mage = 13.02 years) and female (n = 689; Mage = 12.95 years) children and adolescents (9-17 years old) from Barbados and Grenada. Self-report surveys were completed by participants in school settings. Three latent classes of child abuse were distinguished among boys, including 'low abuse' (39.2% of the sample), 'physical and emotional abuse high outside/medium in the family' (43.2%), and 'high overall abuse' (17.6%). Among girls, four unique classes were recovered: 'low abuse' (40.7%), 'high physical and emotional abuse outside the family' (7.6%), 'high emotional and moderate physical abuse' (33.9%), and 'high overall abuse' (17.8%). Compared with members of low abuse groups, youths who reported having experienced high/moderate levels of various forms of violence, including those who were abused in multiple ways and across the two settings ('high overall abuse'), were significantly more likely to engage in violent and hostile behavior. Abused and non-abused youths did not differ on non-violent conflict resolution skills. The significance of present findings for future research and practice is discussed.