Evaluation of a microencapsulated form of zinc oxide on weanling pig growth performance, fecal zinc excretion, and small intestinal morphology.

A total of 300 pigs (DNA 200 × 400; initially 6.0 ±â€…0.08 kg body weight [BW]) were used in a 42-d study to evaluate a microencapsulated form of zinc oxide. At weaning, pigs were randomly allocated to pens, and pens were randomly assigned to dietary treatments with 5 pigs per pen and 12 pens per treatment. Dietary treatments were 1) negative control (CON; standard nursery diet containing 110 ppm Zn in the form of zinc sulfate from trace mineral premix); 2) control diet with 400 ppm added Zn from ZnO included in phases 1 and 2 (Low-ZnO); 3) control diet with 3,000 ppm added Zn from ZnO included in phase 1 and 2,000 ppm added Zn from ZnO included in phase 2 (High-ZnO); 4) control diet with 400 ppm added Zn from microencapsulated ZnO included in phases 1 and 2 (Low-MZnO; Vetagro S.p.A., Reggio Emilia, Italy); 5) control diet with 3,000 ppm added Zn from microencapsulated ZnO in phase 1 and 2,000 ppm added Zn from microencapsulated ZnO in phase 2 (high-MZnO; Vetagro S.p.A., Reggio Emilia, Italy). On days 10 and 28, fecal samples from 2 pigs per pen were collected for fecal Zn concentrations, and on day 28, 30 pigs (n = 6) were euthanized, and small intestinal tissues were collected to evaluate morphology. For the entire treatment period (days 0 to 28) there was no evidence of differences in average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), or G:F (P > 0.05). During the common phase 3 (days 28 to 42) pigs fed the negative control, High-MZnO, or Low-MZnO had improved (P < 0.0001) ADG and ADFI compared to pigs fed High- or Low-ZnO. For the entire experiment (days 0 to 42), pigs fed Low-ZnO or High-ZnO had reduced (P < 0.0001) ADG compared to those fed the negative control. A significant treatment × day interaction (P = 0.04) was observed for fecal Zn concentrations, where the level of Zn excreted in the feces was dependent on the sampling day in pigs fed a low level of ZnO or low level of microencapsulated ZnO. There was no evidence (P > 0.05) that small intestinal morphology differed significantly between treatments. In summary, feeding a microencapsulated form of ZnO did not alter piglet growth performance during the treatment period. Pigs fed a low level of ZnO or microencapsulated ZnO had reduced fecal Zn excretion by the end of the feeding period, but no significant impacts were observed on piglet small intestinal morphology.

Postmanufacturing techniques for mitigation of viral pathogens in porcine-derived feed ingredients: a review.

African swine fever virus (ASFV) is a highly infectious virus known to cause substantial mortality and morbidity in pigs. The transmissibility and severity of disease within pigs, as well as the potentially resultant catastrophic trade ramifications, warrant its status as a foreign animal disease of substantial concern to the United States. The ASFV virus can survive for extended periods of time outside its host, and its greatest concentration is often observed in blood and organs, products that are frequently used as raw materials to manufacture porcine-derived ingredients fed to animals in the United States. Unlike ruminant-based proteins that cannot be fed to ruminant animals, it is permissible to feed porcine-derived ingredients to pigs in the United States. However, the increased threat of ASFV entry into the United States and our evolving understanding of viral transmission by feedstuffs warrant further investigation into this practice. The objectives of this review are to describe the current knowledge of ASFV survival in raw materials used to produce porcine-based ingredients, identify priorities for future research, and summarize potential options for managing risk until additional knowledge can be gained. While limited data is available for ASFV-specific mitigation, the temperatures used in both spray-drying and rendering have proven to effectively reduce viral concentrations of multiple swine viruses below detectable limits. However, some of these procedures may not eliminate the risk of recontamination, which necessitates the need for additional prevention or mitigation measures. Most published research in this area relies on direct inoculation of raw ingredient, not the finished porcine-derived ingredient. Currently, three published studies report ASFV mitigation in either thermally processed conditions (>40 °C) or ingredient quarantine (<40 °C). Virus inactivation, or the reduction of viral concentrations below detectable levels, was observed in the thermally processed study and one of the two ingredient quarantine studies. In conclusion, there is little knowledge to eliminate the risk of recontamination in porcine-derived ingredients; therefore, future research should aim to support and validate the currently available literature for the continued and safe production of porcine-derived ingredients in the event of a foreign animal disease outbreak.

Evaluation of Truck Cab Decontamination Procedures following Inoculation with Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus and Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus.

This experiment aimed to evaluate commercially available disinfectants and their application methods against porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) on truck cab surfaces. Plastic, fabric, and rubber surfaces inoculated with PEDV or PRRSV were placed in a full-scale truck cab and then treated with one of eight randomly assigned disinfectant treatments. After application, surfaces were environmentally sampled with cotton gauze and tested for PEDV and PRRSV using qPCR duplex analysis. There was a disinfectant × surface interaction (p < 0.0001), indicating a detectable amount of PEDV or PRRSV RNA was impacted by disinfectant treatment and surface material. For rubber surfaces, 10% bleach application had lower detectable amounts of RNA compared to all other treatments (p < 0.05) except Intervention via misting fumigation, which was intermediate. In both fabric and plastic surfaces, there was no evidence (p > 0.05) of a difference in detectable RNA between disinfectant treatments. For disinfectant treatments, fabric surfaces with no chemical treatment had less detectable viral RNA compared to the corresponding plastic and rubber (p < 0.05). Intervention applied via pump sprayer to fabric surfaces had less detectable viral RNA than plastic (p < 0.05). Furthermore, 10% bleach applied via pump sprayer to fabric and rubber surfaces had less detectable viral RNA than plastic (p < 0.05). Also, a 10 h downtime, with no chemical application or gaseous fumigation for 10 h, applied to fabric surfaces had less detectable viral RNA than other surfaces (p < 0.05). Sixteen treatments were evaluated via swine bioassay, but all samples failed to produce infectivity. In summary, commercially available disinfectants successfully reduced detectable viral RNA on surfaces but did not eliminate viral genetic material, highlighting the importance of bioexclusion of pathogens of interest.

Effect of the pelleting process on diet formulations with varying levels of crystalline amino acids and reducing sugars on digestibility in growing pigs.

The objective of this experiment was to determine the effects of pelleting on the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids (AA) and crude protein (CP) in diets with or without increased concentrations of free AA and reducing sugars (RS). Eight individually housed, ileal cannulated barrows (initially 31.4 kg) were allotted to an 8 × 8 Latin square with eight diets and eight 7-d periods with ileal digesta collected on days 6 and 7. Treatments were arranged in a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial with the main effects of diet form (mash or pellet), crystalline AA (low or high), or RS (low or high), provided by distillers dried grains with solubles and bakery meal. Diets were pelleted to achieve a hot pellet temperature of 85 to 88 °C. Data were analyzed as a Latin square design using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS 9.4. A feed form × RS interaction (P < 0.026) for SID of tryptophan was observed. Feeding pelleted low RS diets increased SID of tryptophan compared with mash high and low RS diets, and pelleted high RS diets. For the main effects of feed form, the SID of total AA, CP, and indispensable AA was greater (P < 0.042) in pelleted diets compared with mash diets. For the main effects of crystalline AA, pigs fed high crystalline AA had increased (P = 0.007) SID of tryptophan and decreased (P = 0.050) SID of histidine compared with those fed low crystalline AA diets. For the main effects of RS, high RS diets had decreased (P < 0.05) SID of total AA, CP, and indispensable AA compared with low RS diets. In conclusion, pelleting diets increased AA digestibility, and pelleting diets with increased crystalline AA or RS did not affect the improvement in AA digestibility from pelleting. Diets formulated with high crystalline AA had increased SID of tryptophan. Formulating diets with high RS resulted in decreased AA digestibility compared with corn-soybean meal-based diets.

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of pelleting on the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids (AA) in diets with or without increased concentrations of free AA and reducing sugars (RS). Treatments were arranged in a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial with the main effects of diet form (mash or pellet), crystalline AA (low or high), or RS (low or high), provided by dried distillers grains with solubles and bakery meal. A total of 8 illeal cannulated barrows were fed treatments in an 8 × 8 Latin square design. Results indicated that there was no evidence of interactions between diet types and diet form, indicating that increasing amounts of crystalline AA and RS did not reduce amino acid digestibility when pelleting diets. Additionally, pelleting diets resulted in increased amino acid digestibility compared to mash diets. Diets formulated with 20% dried distillers grains with solubles and 15% bakery resulted in decreased amino acid digestibility compared with the corn­soybean meal-based diets. Crystalline amino acid concentration did not influence amino acid digestibility of indispensable AA, except for SID of tryptophan which was increased in diets with higher concentrations of crystalline AA.

Summary of methodology used in enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) challenge experiments in weanling pigs and quantitative assessment of observed variability.

Postweaning diarrhea in pigs is often caused by the F4 or F18 strains of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC). To evaluate interventions for ETEC, experimental infection via a challenge model is critical. Others have reviewed ETEC challenge studies, but there is a lack of explanation for the variability in responses observed. Our objective was to quantitatively summarize the responses and variability among ETEC challenge studies and develop a tool for sample size calculation. The most widely evaluated response criteria across ETEC challenge studies consist of growth performance, fecal consistency, immunoglobulins, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and small intestinal morphology. However, there is variation in the responses seen following ETEC infection as well as the variability within each response criteria. Contributing factors include the type of ETEC studied, dose and timing of inoculation, and the number of replications. Generally, a reduction in average daily gain and average daily feed intake are seen following ETEC challenge as well as a rapid increase in diarrhea. The magnitude of response in growth performance varies, and methodologies used to characterize fecal consistency are not standardized. Likewise, fecal bacterial shedding is a common indicator of ETEC infection, but the responses seen across the literature are not consistent due to differences in bacterial enumeration procedures. Emphasis should also be placed on the piglet's immune response to ETEC, which is commonly assessed by quantifying levels of immunoglobulins and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Again, there is variability in these responses across published work due to differences in the timing of sample collection, dose of ETEC pigs are challenged with, and laboratory practices. Small intestinal morphology is drastically altered following infection with ETEC and appears to be a less variable response criterion to evaluate. For each of these outcome variables, we have provided quantitative estimates of the responses seen across the literature as well as the variability within them. While there is a large degree of variability across ETEC challenge experiments, we have provided a quantitative summary of these studies and a Microsoft Excel-based tool was created to calculate sample sizes for future studies that can aid researchers in designing future work.

Isolation of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus from feed ingredients and complete feed, with subsequent RT-qPCR analysis.

We used virus isolation (VI) to determine tissue culture infectivity and reverse-transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) to determine the stability of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus 2 (PRRSV) strain P129 in solvent-extracted soybean meal (SBM), dried distillers grains with solubles (DDGS), complete swine feed (FEED), or medium (DMEM) at 4°C, 23°C, or 37°C for up to 3 d. Samples of each treatment were taken at regular intervals and processed. Supernatant was titrated and used to inoculate confluent MARC-145 cells to determine infectivity. RNA was extracted from each supernatant sample and tested by RT-qPCR to determine any change in detectable virus RNA across matrix type, temperature, and time. An interaction (p = 0.028) was observed for matrix × temperature × hour for live virus detected by VI. At 4°C, the concentration of infectious virus was greatest in DMEM, intermediate in SBM, and lowest in DDGS and FEED. DMEM also had the greatest concentration of infectious PRRSV at 23°C over time; a higher infectious virus concentration was maintained in SBM for longer than in DDGS or FEED. At 37°C, a greater concentration of infectious virus was sustained in DMEM than in the feedstuffs, with concentrations decreasing until 48 h post-inoculation. Only matrix type influenced the quantity of viral RNA detected by RT-qPCR (p = 0.032). More viral RNA was detected in the virus control than in DDGS; SBM and FEED were intermediate. By VI, we found that infectious virus could be harbored in SBM, DDGS, and FEED for a short time.

Investigation of the environmental presence of Salmonella spp. in finishing pigs at commercial swine farms in Kansas (USA).

Salmonellosis remains a major foodborne disease threat to public health worldwide. Swine are considered a reservoir for many Salmonella serotypes affecting humans; however, not all serotypes of concern in food animal products cause clinical signs of infection in swine. The objective of this study was to evaluate the presence and distribution of Salmonella spp. in finishing pigs at commercial farms across Kansas (USA). Five farms were selected and sampled when pigs weighed between 125 and 136 kg. Samples were collected and transported to the laboratory for processing following USDA-FSIS guidelines. Susceptibility and resistance profiles were also studied. Fifty-three percent (100/186) of samples were culture positive for Enterobacteriaceae, and 14% (14/100) were confirmed Salmonella positive by PCR with three of five farms having no PCR-positive samples. Salmonella serotype Braenderup was the most common serovar identified in environmental samples, while Salm. Infantis, Agona, and Montevideo were identified in fecal samples. Multidrug resistance patterns were only found in Farm 3, in fecal samples and in one floor sample. The observations reported in this study highlight areas of concern, such as locations prone to fecal contamination, to be considered when cleaning and sanitizing between groups of pigs to decrease presence of Salmonella spp. in farm environments.

Evaluating dry vs. wet disinfection in boot baths on detection of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus and porcine reproductive and respiratory virus RNA.

Maintaining biosecurity between swine barns is challenging, and boot baths are an easily implementable option some utilize to limit pathogen spread. However, there are concerns regarding their efficacy, especially when comparing wet or dry disinfectants. The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of boot baths in reducing the quantity of detectable porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) genetic material using wet or dry disinfectants. Treatments included 1) control, 2) dry chlorine powder (Traffic C.O.P., PSP, LLC, Rainsville, AL), and 3) wet quaternary ammonium/glutaraldehyde liquid (1:256 Synergize, Neogen, Lexington, KY). Prior to disinfection, rubber boots were inoculated with 1 mL of a co-inoculants of PRRSV (1 × 105 TCID50 per mL) and PEDV (1 × 105 TCID50 per mL) and dried for 15 min. After the drying period, a researcher placed the boot on the right foot and stepped directly on a stainless steel coupon (control). Alternatively, the researcher stepped first into a boot bath containing either the wet or dry sanitizer, stood for 3 s, and then stepped onto a steel coupon. After one minute, an environmental swab was then collected and processed from each boot and steel coupon. The procedure was replicated 12 times per disinfectant treatment. Samples were analyzed using a duplex qPCR at the Kansas State Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory. Cycle threshold values were analyzed using SAS GLIMMIX v 9.4 (SAS, Inc., Cary, NC). There was no evidence of a disinfectant × surface × virus interaction (P > 0.10). An interaction between disinfectant × surface impacted (P < 0.05) the quantity of detectable viral RNA. As expected, the quantity of the viruses on the coupon was greatest in the control, indicating that a contaminated boot has the ability to transfer viruses from a contaminated surface to a clean surface. Comparatively, the dry disinfectant treatment resulted in no detectable viral RNA on either the boot or subsequent coupon. The wet disinfectant treatment had statistically similar (P > 0.05) viral contamination to the control on the boot, but less viral contamination compared to the control on the metal coupon. In this experiment, a boot bath with dry powder was the most efficacious in reducing the detectable viral RNA on both boots and subsequent surfaces.

Impact of storage conditions and premix type on water-soluble vitamin stability.

Mitigation options to reduce the risk of foreign animal disease entry into the United States may lead to degradation of some vitamins. The objective of Exp. 1 was to determine the impact of 0, 30, 60, or 90 d storage time on water-soluble vitamin (riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, and cobalamin) stability when vitamin premix (VP) and vitamin trace mineral premix (VTM) were blended with 1% inclusion of medium-chain fatty acid (MCFA) (1:1:1 blend of C6:C8:C10) or mineral oil (MO) with different environmental conditions. Samples stored at room temperature (RT) (approximately 22 °C) or in an environmentally controlled chamber set at 40 °C and 75% humidity, high temperature high humidity (HTHH). The sample bags were pulled out at day 0, 30, 60, and 90 for RT condition and HTHH condition. Therefore, treatments were analyzed as a 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 factorial, with two premix types (vitamin premix vs. VTM), two oil types (MO vs. MCFA), two storage conditions (RT vs. HTHH), and three time points (day 30, 60, and 90). The objective of Exp. 2 was to determine the effect of heat pulse treatment and MCFA addition on water-soluble vitamin (riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, and cobalamin) stability with two premix types. A sample from each treatment was heated at 60 °C and 20% humidity. Therefore, treatments were analyzed as a 2 × 2 factorial, with two premix types (VP vs. VTM) and two oil types (MO vs. MCFA). For Exp. 1, the following effects were significant for riboflavin: main effect of premix type (P < 0.0001), storage condition (P = 0.015), and storage time (P < 0.0001); for pantothenic acid: premix type × storage time × storage condition (P = 0.003) and premix type × oil type (P < 0.0001) interactions; and for cobalamin: premix type × storage condition (P < 0.0001) and storage time × storage condition (P < 0.0001) interactions and main effect of oil type (P = 0.018). The results of Exp. 2 demonstrated that there was an interaction between oil type and premix type for only pantothenic acid (P = 0.021). The oil type did not affect the stability of riboflavin, niacin, or cobalamin and pantothenic acid stability was not different within similar premixes. The only difference in water-soluble vitamin stability between VP and VTM was for pantothenic acid (P < 0.001). The results of this experiment demonstrated that the stability of water soluble vitamins are dependent on the vitamin of interest and the conditions at which it is stored.

Effects of formic acid and glycerol monolaurate on weanling pig growth performance, fecal consistency, fecal microbiota, and serum immunity.

A total of 350 weanling pigs (DNA 400 × 200; initially, 5.67 ± 0.06 kg BW) were used in a 42-day study with 5 pigs per pen and 14 replicate pens per treatment. At weaning, pigs were allotted to pens in a completely randomized design and pens of pigs were randomly assigned to one of five dietary treatments: 1) negative control (CON; standard nursery diet containing only 150 ppm Zn from trace mineral premix and no acidifier); 2) control diet with 3,000 ppm added zinc from ZnO included in phase 1 and 2,000 ppm added zinc from ZnO included in phase 2 (ZnO); 3) control diet with 0.70% formic acid (FA; Amasil NA; BASF, Florham, NJ); 4) control diet with 0.18% glycerol monolaurate (GML; Natural Biologics GML, Natural Biologics, Newfield, NY); and 5) control diet with a 1.0% blend of formic acid and glycerol monolaurate (FORMI; FORMI 3G, ADDCON GmbH, Bitterfeld-Wolfen, Germany). Pigs were fed treatment diets from d 0 to d 28 and were then fed a common diet from d 28 to d 42. From days 0 to 7, pigs fed ZnO or FORMI had increased (P = 0.03) ADG compared to pigs fed CON, with no difference in feed intake (P > 0.05). Overall, pigs fed GML had reduced (P < 0.0001) ADG compared with those fed the CON, ZnO, or FORMI diets. Fecal DM was evaluated from days 7 to 28 and there was a treatment × day interaction (P = 0.04). Pigs fed GML had a lower fecal DM % on day 7, but a higher fecal DM % on days 14 and 21; however, no differences in fecal DM were observed on day 28. Fresh fecal samples were collected from the same randomly selected pig on days 0 and 14 (70 pigs total;14 pigs per treatment) for analysis of fecal microbial populations using 16S rDNA sequencing. Dietary treatment did not significantly impact fecal microbiota at the phyla level, but pigs fed ZnO had an increased relative abundance (P < 0.01) of the family Clostridiaceae. A blood sample was also collected from one pig per pen on days 0 and 14 for analysis of serum IgA, IgG, and TNF-α. There was no evidence that dietary treatment effected IgA, IgG, or TNF-α concentrations. The effect of sampling day was significant (P < 0.05), where circulating IgA and TNF-α was increased and IgG was decreased from days 0 to 14. In summary, there is potential for a blend of formic acid and GML to improve growth performance immediately post-weaning without negatively impacting fecal consistency. Formic acid and GML alone or in combination did not impact fecal microbial populations or serum immune parameters.

Detection and investigation of atypical porcine pestivirus in a swine production system.

A commercial farrow-to-finish farm was suspicious of atypical porcine pestivirus (APPV) after observing clinical signs of congenital tremors (CT) and splay leg (SL) of newborn pigs. If introduced onto the farrow-to-finish, the two potential routes of introduction could be through replacement gilts or incoming semen doses. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the prevalence of clinical APPV within the sampled population, identify the route of APPV introduction to this system, and determine prevalence of detectable APPV RNA within a population of gilt multiplication farm offspring through an isolation nursery and finisher barn. Farrowing records were analyzed for the presence of CT or SL and corresponding parity of the dam. Overall, prevalence of clinically affected litters within batch farrowing groups ranged from 0 to 31%. Phylogenetic analysis was conducted on a serum sample from a gilt at the isolation nursery, semen dose for the farrow-to-finish farm, and serum of a CT piglet. Results indicated that the virus circulating in clinically affected piglets was most similar to an incoming semen dose (98.9% nucleotide identity). Blood samples were collected at four time points and revealed APPV clinical prevalence was 37.5-77.5% during the nursery phase and 0-26% during the finisher phase. Oral fluids were also collected during the finisher phase and APPV clinical prevalence was 100% for all sampling time points. In summary, introduction of APPV into naïve herds is associated with increased clinical CT and SL cases and is detectable in asymptomatic pigs during the nursery and finisher production phases. This study found that potential screening tests for APPV could include oral fluids or qRT-PCR analysis of semen doses especially when trying to identify prevalence levels on naïve farm.

Impacts of a post-transport/pre-processing rest period on the growth performance, anthelmintic efficacy, and serum metabolite changes in cattle entering a feed yard.

A total of 80 crossbred, high-risk heifers (initially 250 ± 4.2 kg BW), were transported from an Oklahoma City, Oklahoma sale barn to the Kansas State University Beef Cattle Research Center. Cattle were unloaded and randomly placed into one of four receiving pens and provided ad libitum hay and water. Each pen was randomly assigned to one of the four rest times before processing: (1) immediately upon arrival (0); (2) after a 6-h rest period (6); (3) after a 24-h rest period (24); and (4) after a 48-h rest period (48). After all cattle were processed, heifers were allotted into individual pens with ad libitum access to a receiving ration and water. Heifers were weighed individually on d 0, 7, 14, 21, 28, and 35 to calculate average daily gain (ADG). Feed added and refusals were measured daily to determine dry matter intake (DMI). A fecal egg count reduction test and analysis of blood serum metabolites were also conducted. All data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS (v. 9.4, Cary, NC) with individual animal as the experimental unit. Processing time did not impact (P > 0.05) heifer BW or ADG. From d 0 to 35, DMI decreased linearly (P = 0.027) as rest time increased. The number of days for heifers to reach a DMI of 2.5% BW was linearly increased (P = 0.023) as rest time increased. There was no evidence of differences (P ≥ 0.703) among rest times for feed efficiency. While morbidity did not differ between treatments (P > 0.10), mortality increased linearly (P = 0.026) as the time of rest increased. A significant processing time × day interaction (P < 0.0001) was observed for the prevalence of fecal parasites, where the percentage of positive samples was significantly lower 14-d after anthelmintic treatment, regardless of the processing time. Serum IBR titer for heifers processed at either 0 or 6-h upon arrival was significantly higher (P < 0.01) on d 35 compared to d 0. Heifers processed after a 48-h rest period had significantly higher glucose values (P < 0.01) on d 0 compared to heifers processed at 0, 6, or 24-h. In summary, rest time prior to processing did not impact receiving calf growth performance. A 6-h rest period upon arrival appeared to be most beneficial to DMI. Anthelmintic treatment at processing reduced the parasitic load in heifers processed at all times. Vaccine titer did not increase after initial processing in heifers processed 24- or 48-h after arrival, indicating the seroconversion of IBR antibodies during the longer rest period.

Evaluating the impact of feeding dried distillers grains with solubles on Boer goat growth performance, meat color stability, and antioxidant capacity.

A total of 72 male Boer goat kids (21.7 ± 0.5 kg) were fed for 21 d with 3 kids per pen and 12 pens per treatment. Dietary treatments were: 0% inclusion of dried distillers grains with solubles (DDGS; 0% DDGS) or 33% DDGS inclusion (33% DDGS) and were provided ad libitum. Goats and feeders were weighed weekly to collect body weights (BW) and determine feed disappearance in order to calculate average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), and feed efficiency (G:F). At the conclusion of the feeding study, a subset (n = 30; 2-3 goats from each pen representing six6 pens per treatment) of goats were harvested, carcasses evaluated, and loins were fabricated into 2.54 cm chops. Goat chop discoloration was evaluated by trained panelists and measured for L*, a*, and b* values on days 0, 4, 7, and 10 under retail display conditions. Samples were collected and analyzed for lipid oxidation, fatty acid profile, and hydrophilic and lipophilic antioxidant capacity. No evidence of differences was observed for final BW, ADFI, G:F, and carcass characteristics (P > 0.05). However, goats fed the 0% DDGS diet had greater ADG compared with those fed a diet containing 33% DDGS (P = 0.05). Overall, visual evaluation of discoloration, L*, a*, and b* as well as lipid oxidation data confirmed that feeding 33% DDGS to goats had no effect on goat chop discoloration and lipid oxidation (P > 0.10). However, all chops demonstrated a display effect, which they increased in visual discoloration and lipid oxidation and decreased in a* and b* values (P < 0.01) over the entirety of the 10-d period of retail display, regardless of the dietary treatments. As expected, feeding 33% DDGS to goats decreased relative percentage of multiple and total monounsaturated fatty acids, but increased relative percentage of multiple and total polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA; P < 0.05). The antioxidant capacity measurements showed no treatment difference in the hydrophilic portion (P > 0.10), but chops from the 33% DDGS treatment had greater lipophilic antioxidant activity compared with the 0% DDGS chops (P < 0.05). In conclusion, including 33% DDGS to the diet may negatively impact goat growth performance, but did not impact any carcass characteristics. Feeding a diet with 33% DDGS resulted in an increase in the PUFA content of goat chops but did not appear to impact meat color or lipid oxidation. The supposed negative consequence from increased PUFA is likely counterbalanced by the increased antioxidant capacity in the lipid component of meat, resulting in no difference in meat shelf-life.

Developing a gateway program for importing non-animal origin ingredients from regions with African swine fever virus.

The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) categorizes the risk of African swine fever virus (ASFV) entry into the United States through non-animal origin feed ingredients as 'negligible to moderate, with high uncertainty'. Both Canada and Australia have implemented policies that are suggested to reduce the risk of ASFV entry through feed ingredients, but the United States has not because of scientific limitations that have been addressed by recent publications. As regulators and industry consider a potential pathway forward, the objective of this manuscript is to describe a process to determine if a voluntary or regulatory import policy is warranted by the United States. Initially, the volume and types of non-animal origin feed ingredients imported from countries with ASFV were quantified and assigned a level of risk (high risk: unprocessed grains and oilseeds, moderate risk: soybean co-products (meals, oil, and oilcake), and low risk: amino acids, vitamins, and other synthetically produced products from countries that have ASFV). In 2020, moderate- and high-risk ingredients from ASFV-positive countries represented 3.1% of all ingredients imported into the United States. Policies from Canada and Australia were evaluated for practicality of implementation by US government officials. Industry representatives from both countries consistently stated their policies would not be feasible in the United States due to the differences in cost and complexity of the swine and feed industries. Overall, unprocessed, or high-risk, ingredients from ASFV-positive countries represent a low percentage of imported ingredients into the United States; however, cautionary procedures may still be warranted given industry demand.

Inoculation of Weaned Pigs by Feed, Water, and Airborne Transmission of Salmonella enterica Serotype 4,[5],12:i:.

ABSTRACT: Salmonella enterica serotype 4,[5],12:i:- (STM) has become an increasing problem for food safety and has been often detected in swine products. Weanling pigs were exposed to STM-contaminated feed, water, or air to determine possible STM transmission routes. A control group of pigs was included. STM was monitored daily in feces and rectal and nasal swabs. STM colonization was most prevalent in tissues from tonsil, lower intestine, and mesenteric lymph nodes. No differences in lesion severity were observed between inoculated and control pigs. Contaminated feed, water, and aerosolized particles caused infection in weaned pigs; however, no STM colonization was observed in skeletal muscle destined for human consumption. Based on the results from this study, STM contamination in pork products most likely results from cross-contamination of meat by digesta or lymph node tissue during processing.

Effects of a dry acidulant addition to prevent Salmonella contamination in poultry feed.

Salmonella subs. serovar Enteritidis is a potential biological pathogen of concern in the poultry industry. Contamination of the bacterium on eggshells has led to human illnesses. With the implementation of new regulations, animal feed manufacturing continues to be under more stringent requirements. Specifically, there is zero tolerance for Salmonella Pullorum, Gallinarum, or Enteritidis in poultry feed. For this reason, it is important to determine an effective method of reducing or preventing Salmonella contamination in feed for poultry. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of sodium bisulfate (SBS; Jones-Hamilton, Co., Walbridge, OH) added to poultry mash to reduce or prevent Salmonella growth over time. A single, commercially produced all-flock poultry mash was mixed with four different levels of SBS: 0.0%, 0.25%, 0.50%, and 0.70%. After SBS addition, the treated mash was inoculated with Salmonella enterica subsp, enterica serovar Enteritidis (ATCC 13076) and enumerated for Salmonella on days 0, 1, 2, 7, and 14 post-inoculation by plating on xylose lysine deoxycholate agar. There was no significant effect of SBS inclusion level on the reduction of Salmonella (P = 0.23); however, there was a significant effect of time across treatments (P < 0.0001). Additionally, there was no inclusion level × time interaction (P = 0.68). These results suggest that while SBS inclusion has no effect on Salmonella concentrations, storage time is effective at reducing or eliminating Salmonella contamination in poultry feed.

Effect of mixing and feed batch sequencing on the prevalence and distribution of African swine fever virus in swine feed.

It is critical to have methods that can detect and mitigate the risk of African swine fever virus (ASFV) in potentially contaminated feed or ingredients bound for the United States. The purpose of this work was to evaluate feed batch sequencing as a mitigation technique for ASFV contamination in a feed mill, and to determine if a feed sampling method could identify ASFV following experimental inoculation. Batches of feed were manufactured in a BSL-3Ag room at Kansas State University's Biosafety Research Institute in Manhattan, Kansas. First, the pilot feed manufacturing system mixed, conveyed, and discharged an ASFV-free diet. Next, a diet was manufactured using the same equipment, but contained feed inoculated with ASFV for final concentration of 5.6 × 104 TCID50 /g. Then, four subsequent ASFV-free batches of feed were manufactured. After discharging each batch into a collection container, 10 samples were collected in a double 'X' pattern. Samples were analysed using a qPCR assay for ASFV p72 gene then the cycle threshold (Ct) and Log10 genomic copy number (CN)/g of feed were determined. The qPCR Ct values (p < .0001) and the Log10 genomic CN/g (p < .0001) content of feed samples were impacted based on the batch of feed. Feed samples obtained after manufacturing the ASFV-contaminated diet contained the greatest amounts of ASFV p72 DNA across all criteria (p < .05). Quantity of ASFV p72 DNA decreased sequentially as additional batches of feed were manufactured, but was still detectable after batch sequence 4. This subsampling method was able to identify ASFV genetic material in feed samples using p72 qPCR. In summary, sequencing batches of feed decreases concentration of ASFV contamination in feed, but does not eliminate it. Bulk ingredients can be accurately evaluated for ASFV contamination by collecting 10 subsamples using the sampling method described herein. Future research is needed to evaluate if different mitigation techniques can reduce ASFV feed contamination.

Sampling and detection of African swine fever virus within a feed manufacturing and swine production system.

Transmission of biological hazards capable of causing disease in livestock can occur through a wide variety of direct and indirect routes. In swine production, there are a large number of possible routes of exposure of a pathogen into a susceptible population. African swine fever virus (ASFV) has been a significant challenge for Southeast Asia since first detected in China in 2018 and has spread through many countries within the region. In order to understand potential transmission pathways within an ASFV endemic region, a diagnostic investigation was performed to determine the level of contamination on a wide variety of surface types within a live animal production, feed manufacturing, and feed distribution system located in Vietnam. All diagnostic testing was performed locally by the production system's internal diagnostic laboratory using real-time polymerase chain reaction (rt-PCR) analysis. Early in the diagnostic investigation, it became clear that feed trucks were a common site of ASFV surface contamination detection. This information resulted in biosecurity-focused actions for feed trucks arriving back at the feed mill, including decontamination of interior truck cab surfaces and washing of exterior truck surfaces with high-pressure water prior to application of surface disinfectants. Additionally, a low number of rt-PCR positive samples were detected within the feed production system, with the greatest number coming from transient surfaces such as high traffic areas and worker clothing. This illustrates the importance of managing employee traffic through procedures such as zoning and separation between clean-dirty areas to reduce the likelihood of pathogen transmission. In conclusion, this report illustrates the importance of routine data capture regarding efficacy of biosecurity procedures which allows for real-time updates and improvement as biosecurity gaps are identified.

Assessment of soy-based imports into the United States and associated foreign animal disease status.

Soy-based products are known to pose a viable risk to U.S. swine herds because of their ability to harbour and transmit virus. This publication aimed to evaluate soy imports into the United States as a whole and from foreign animal disease positive (FAD-positive) countries to determine which products are being imported in the highest quantities and observe potential trends in imports from FAD-positive countries. Import data were accessed through the United States International Trade Commission website (USITC DataWeb) and summarized using R (version 4.0.2, R core team, Vienna, Austria). Twenty-one different Harmonized Tariff Schedule (HTS) codes were queried to determine quantities (metric tonnes, MT) and breakdown of different soy product types being imported into the United States from 2015 to 2020. A total of 78 different countries exported soy products to the United States in 2019 and 2020 with top contributors being Canada (546,467 and 481,497 MT, respectively), India (397,858 and 430,621 MT, respectively) and Argentina (122,116 and 79,471 MT, respectively). Soy oilcake (582,273 MT) was imported in the largest quantities, followed by organic soybeans (270,194 MT) and soy oil (134,436 MT) for 2020. Of the 78 countries, 46 had cases of FAD reported through the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) World Animal Health Information Database (WAHIS). Top exporters of soy products to the United States from FAD-positive countries in 2019 and 2020 were India (397,858 and 430,621 MT, respectively), Argentina (122,116 MT in 2019) and Ukraine (40,293 and 56,392 MT, respectively). The risk of FAD introduction to the United States through soy imports can fluctuate based on where FAD outbreaks are occurring, shipping methods and end usage of products. A system to monitor these factors could help make future decisions about trade and risk of FAD introduction to U.S. swine herds.

Salmonella enterica 4,[5],12:i:-, an Emerging Threat for the Swine Feed and Pork Production Industry.

ABSTRACT: Salmonella continues to be a significant cause of foodborne illnesses in human medicine. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported Salmonella as the second leading cause of foodborne illness in the United States and the leading cause of both hospitalizations and deaths. Salmonella enterica 4,[5],12:i:- (STM) is a monophasic variant of Salmonella Typhimurium, and it is an emerging threat to both human and animal health. STM was first identified in the 1980s from poultry products and has become increasingly prevalent in meat products including pork. STM has also been identified in swine farms as well as in feed manufacturing environments and feed itself. Similar pulse-field gel electrophoresis profiles have been observed between human clinical cases and the STM samples originating from swine feed. These related profiles suggest a link between ingestion of contaminated feed by swine and the source of foodborne illness in human. The objective of this article was to better understand the history of STM and the possible pathway from swine feed to table. Continued research is necessary to better understand how STM can enter both the feed supply chain and the pork production chain to avoid contamination of pork products destined for human consumption.