A comprehensive assessment of palmatine as anticonvulsant agent - In vivo and in silico studies.

Previously, we demonstrated that palmatine (PALM) - an isoquinoline alkaloid from Berberis sibrica radix, exerted antiseizure activity in the pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced seizure assay in larval zebrafish. The aim of the present study was to more precisely characterize PALM as a potential anticonvulsant drug candidate. A range of zebrafish and mouse seizure/epilepsy models were applied in the investigation. Immunostaining analysis was conducted to assess the changes in mouse brains, while in silico molecular modelling was performed to determine potential targets for PALM. Accordingly, PALM had anticonvulsant effect in ethyl 2-ketopent-4-enoate (EKP)-induced seizure assay in zebrafish larvae as well as in the 6 Hz-induced psychomotor seizure threshold and timed infusion PTZ tests in mice. The protective effect in the EKP-induced seizure assay was confirmed in the local field potential recordings. PALM did not affect seizures in the gabra1a knockout line of zebrafish larvae. In the scn1Lab-/- zebrafish line, pretreatment with PALM potentiated seizure-like behaviour of larvae. Repetitive treatment with PALM, however, did not reduce development of PTZ-induced seizure activity nor prevent the loss of parvalbumin-interneurons in the hippocampus of the PTZ kindled mice. In silico molecular modelling revealed that the noted anticonvulsant effect of PALM in EKP-induced seizure assay might result from its interactions with glutamic acid decarboxylase and/or via AMPA receptor non-competitive antagonism. Our study has demonstrated the anticonvulsant activity of PALM in some experimental models of seizures, including a model of pharmacoresistant seizures induced by EKP. These results indicate that PALM might be a suitable new drug candidate but the precise mechanism of its anticonvulsant activity has to be determined.

The application of WaterMap-guided structure-based virtual screening in novel drug discovery.

INTRODUCTION: Nowadays, it is widely accepted that water molecules play a key role in binding a ligand to a molecular target. Neglecting water molecules in the process of molecular recognition was the result of several failures of the structure-based drug discovery campaigns. The application of WaterMap, in particular WaterMap-guided molecular docking, enables the reasonably accurate and quick description of the location and energetics of water molecules at the ligand-protein interface. AREAS COVERED: In this review, the authors shortly discuss the importance of water in drug design and discovery and provide a brief overview of the computational approaches used to predict the solvent-related effects for the purposes of presenting WaterMap in the context of other available techniques and tools. A concise description of WaterMap concept is followed by the presentation of WaterMap-assisted virtual screening literature published between 2013 and 2023. EXPERT OPINION: In recent years, WaterMap software has been extensively used to support structure-based drug design, in particular structure-based virtual screening. Indeed, it is a useful tool to rescore docking results considering water molecules in the binding pocket. Although WaterMap allows for the consideration of the dynamic behavior of water molecules in the binding site, for best accuracy, its application in conjunction with other techniques such as molecular mechanics-generalized Born surface area of FEP (Free Energy Perturbation) is recommended.

Caspases in Alzheimer's Disease: Mechanism of Activation, Role, and Potential Treatment.

With the aging of the population, treatment of conditions emerging in old age, such as neurodegenerative disorders, has become a major medical challenge. Of these, Alzheimer's disease, leading to cognitive dysfunction, is of particular interest. Neuronal loss plays an important role in the pathophysiology of this condition, and over the years, a great effort has been made to determine the role of various factors in this process. Unfortunately, until now, the exact pathomechanism of this condition remains unknown. However, the most popular theories associate AD with abnormalities in the Tau and ß-amyloid (Aß) proteins, which lead to their deposition and result in neuronal death. Neurons, like all cells, die in a variety of ways, among which pyroptosis, apoptosis, and necroptosis are associated with the activation of various caspases. It is worth mentioning that Tau and Aß proteins are considered to be one of the caspase activators, leading to cell death. Moreover, the protease activity of caspases influences both of the previously mentioned proteins, Tau and Aß, converting them into more toxic derivatives. Due to the variety of ways caspases impact the development of AD, drugs targeting caspases could potentially be useful in the treatment of this condition. Therefore, there is a constant need to search for novel caspase inhibitors and evaluate them in preclinical and clinical trials.

In Silico Analysis, Anticonvulsant Activity, and Toxicity Evaluation of Schisandrin B in Zebrafish Larvae and Mice.

The aim of this study is to evaluate the anticonvulsant potential of schisandrin B, a main ingredient of Schisandra chinensis extracts. Schisandrin B showed anticonvulsant activity in the zebrafish larva pentylenetetrazole acute seizure assay but did not alter seizure thresholds in the intravenous pentylenetetrazole test in mice. Schisandrin B crosses the blood-brain barrier, which we confirmed in our in silico and in vivo analyses; however, the low level of its unbound fraction in the mouse brain tissue may explain the observed lack of anticonvulsant activity. Molecular docking revealed that the anticonvulsant activity of the compound in larval zebrafish might have been due to its binding to a benzodiazepine site within the GABAA receptor and/or the inhibition of the glutamate NMDA receptor. Although schisandrin B showed a beneficial anticonvulsant effect, toxicological studies revealed that it caused serious developmental impairment in zebrafish larvae, underscoring its teratogenic properties. Further detailed studies are needed to precisely identify the properties, pharmacological effects, and safety of schisandrin B.

Novel multi-target ligands of dopamine and serotonin receptors for the treatment of schizophrenia based on indazole and piperazine scaffolds-synthesis, biological activity, and structural evaluation.

Schizophrenia is a chronic mental disorder that is not satisfactorily treated with available antipsychotics. The presented study focuses on the search for new antipsychotics by optimising the compound D2AAK3, a multi-target ligand of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), in particular D2, 5-HT1A, and 5-HT2A receptors. Such receptor profile may be beneficial for the treatment of schizophrenia. Compounds 1-16 were designed, synthesised, and subjected to further evaluation. Their affinities for the above-mentioned receptors were assessed in radioligand binding assays and efficacy towards them in functional assays. Compounds 1 and 10, selected based on their receptor profile, were subjected to in vivo tests to evaluate their antipsychotic activity, and effect on memory and anxiety processes. Molecular modelling was performed to investigate the interactions of the studied compounds with D2, 5-HT1A, and 5-HT2A receptors on the molecular level. Finally, X-ray study was conducted for compound 1, which revealed its stable conformation in the solid state.

Development and Characterization of Novel Selective, Non-Basic Dopamine D2 Receptor Antagonists for the Treatment of Schizophrenia.

The dopamine D2 receptor, which belongs to the family of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR), is an important and well-validated drug target in the field of medicinal chemistry due to its wide distribution, particularly in the central nervous system, and involvement in the pathomechanism of many disorders thereof. Schizophrenia is one of the most frequent diseases associated with disorders in dopaminergic neurotransmission, and in which the D2 receptor is the main target for the drugs used. In this work, we aimed at discovering new selective D2 receptor antagonists with potential antipsychotic activity. Twenty-three compounds were synthesized, based on the scaffold represented by the D2AAK2 compound, which was discovered by our group. This compound is an interesting example of a D2 receptor ligand because of its non-classical binding to this target. Radioligand binding assays and SAR analysis indicated structural modifications of D2AAK2 that are possible to maintain its activity. These findings were further rationalized using molecular modeling. Three active derivatives were identified as D2 receptor antagonists in cAMP signaling assays, and the selected most active compound 17 was subjected to X-ray studies to investigate its stable conformation in the solid state. Finally, effects of 17 assessed in animal models confirmed its antipsychotic activity in vivo.

Discovery of novel arylpiperazine-based DA/5-HT modulators as potential antipsychotic agents - Design, synthesis, structural studies and pharmacological profiling.

Schizophrenia is a mental disorder with a complex pathomechanism involving many neurotransmitter systems. Among the currently used antipsychotics, classical drugs acting as dopamine D2 receptor antagonists, and drugs of a newer generation, the so-called atypical antipsychotics, can be distinguished. The latter are characterized by a multi-target profile of action, affecting, apart from the D2 receptor, also serotonin receptors, in particular 5-HT2A and 5-HT1A. Such profile of action is considered superior in terms of both efficacy in treating symptoms and safety. In the search for new potential antipsychotics of such atypical receptor profile, an attempt was made to optimize the arylpiperazine based virtual hit, D2AAK3, which in previous studies displayed an affinity for D2, 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors, and showed antipsychotic activity in vivo. In this work, we present the design of D2AAK3 derivatives (1-17), their synthesis, and structural and pharmacological evaluation. The obtained compounds show affinities for the receptors of interest and their efficacy as antagonists/agonists towards them was confirmed in functional assays. For the selected compound 11, detailed structural studies were carried out using molecular modeling and X-ray methods. Additionally, ADMET parameters and in vivo antipsychotic activity, as well as influence on memory and anxiety processes were evaluated in mice, which indicated good therapeutic potential and safety profile of the studied compound.

Illuminating the "Twilight Zone": Advances in Difficult Protein Modeling.

Homology modeling was long considered a method of choice in tertiary protein structure prediction. However, it used to provide models of acceptable quality only when templates with appreciable sequence identity with a target could be found. The threshold value was long assumed to be around 20-30%. Below this level, obtained sequence identity was getting dangerously close to values that can be obtained by chance, after aligning any random, unrelated sequences. In these cases, other approaches, including ab initio folding simulations or fragment assembly, were usually employed. The most recent editions of the CASP and CAMEO community-wide modeling methods assessment have brought some surprising outcomes, proving that much more clues can be inferred from protein sequence analyses than previously thought. In this chapter, we focus on recent advances in the field of difficult protein modeling, pushing the threshold deep into the "twilight zone", with particular attention devoted to improvements in applications of machine learning and model evaluation.

The Role of Genetics in the Development and Pharmacotherapy of Depression and Its Impact on Drug Discovery.

Complex disorders, such as depression, remain a mystery for scientists. Although genetic factors are considered important for the prediction of one's vulnerability, it is hard to estimate the exact risk for a patient to develop depression, based only on one category of vulnerability criteria. Genetic factors also regulate drug metabolism, and when they are identified in a specific combination, may result in increased drug resistance. A proper understanding of the genetic basis of depression assists in the development of novel promising medications and effective disorder management schemes. This review aims to analyze the recent literature focusing on the correlation between specific genes and the occurrence of depression. Moreover, certain aspects targeting a high drug resistance identified among patients suffering from major depressive disorder were highlighted in this manuscript. An expected direction of future drug discovery campaigns was also discussed.

Synthesis, Structural and Behavioral Studies of Indole Derivatives D2AAK5, D2AAK6 and D2AAK7 as Serotonin 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A Receptor Ligands.

Serotonin receptors are involved in a number of physiological functions and regulate aggression, anxiety, appetite, cognition, learning, memory, mood, nausea, sleep, and thermoregulation. Here we report synthesis and detailed structural and behavioral studies of three indole derivatives: D2AAK5, D2AAK6, and D2AAK7 as serotonin 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptor ligands. X-ray studies revealed that the D2AAK5 compound crystallizes in centrosymmetric triclinic space group with one molecule in the asymmetric unit. The main interaction between the ligands and the receptors is the salt bridge between the protonatable nitrogen atom of the ligands and the conserved Asp (3.32) of the receptors. The complexes were stable in the molecular dynamic simulations. MD revealed that the studied ligands are relatively stable in their binding sites, with the exception of D2AAK7 in the serotonin 5-HT1A receptor. D2AAK7 exerts anxiolytic activity in the EPM test, while D2AAK5 has a beneficial effect on the memory processes in the PA test.

Funnel metadynamics and behavioral studies reveal complex effect of D2AAK1 ligand on anxiety-like processes.

Anxiety is a troublesome symptom for many patients, especially those suffering from schizophrenia. Its regulation involves serotonin receptors, targeted e.g. by antipsychotics or psychedelics such as LSD. 5-HT2A receptors are known for an extremely long LSD residence time, enabling minute doses to exert a long-lasting effect. In this work, we explore the changes in anxiety-like processes induced by the previously reported antipsychotic, D2AAK1. In vivo studies revealed that the effect of D2AAK1 on the anxiety is mediated through serotonin 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors, and that it is time-dependent (anxiogenic after 30 min, anxiolytic after 60 min) and dose-dependent. The funnel metadynamics simulations suggest complicated ligand-5HT2AR interactions, involving an allosteric site located under the third extracellular loop, which is a possible explanation of the time-dependency. The binding of D2AAK1 at the allosteric site results in a broader opening of the extracellular receptor entry, possibly altering the binding kinetics of orthosteric ligands.

Methods of Lysergic Acid Synthesis-The Key Ergot Alkaloid.

Ergot is the spore form of the fungus Claviceps purpurea. Ergot alkaloids are indole compounds that are biosynthetically derived from L-tryptophan and represent the largest group of fungal nitrogen metabolites found in nature. The common part of ergot alkaloids is lysergic acid. This review shows the importance of lysergic acid as a representative of ergot alkaloids. The subject of ergot and its alkaloids is presented, with a particular focus on lysergic acid. All methods of total lysergic acid synthesis-through Woodward, Hendrickson, and Szantay intermediates and Heck coupling methods-are presented. The topic of biosynthesis is also discussed.

Synthesis, Docking Studies and Pharmacological Evaluation of Serotoninergic Ligands Containing a 5-Norbornene-2-Carboxamide Nucleus.

A new series of 5-norbornene-2-carboxamide derivatives was prepared and their affinities to the 5-HT1A, 5-HT2A, and 5-HT2C receptors were evaluated and compared to a previously synthesized series of derivatives characterized by exo-N-hydroxy-5-norbornene-2,3-dicarboximidenucleus, in order to identify selective ligands for the above-mentioned subtype receptors. Arylpiperazines represents one of the most important classes of 5-HT1AR ligands, and recent research concerning new derivatives has been focused on the modification of one or more portions of such pharmacophore. The combination of structural elements (heterocyclic nucleus, propyl chain and 4-substituted piperazine), known to be critical to the affinity to 5-HT1A receptors, and the proper selection of substituents led to compounds with high specificity and affinity towards serotoninergic receptors. The most active compounds were selected for further in vivo assays to determine their functional activity. Finally, to rationalize the obtained results, molecular docking studies were performed. The results of the pharmacological studies showed that Norbo-4 and Norbo-18 were the most active and promising derivatives for the serotonin receptor considered in this study.

Discovery and Development of First-in-Class ACKR3/CXCR7 Superagonists for Platelet Degranulation Modulation.

The atypical chemokine receptor 3 (ACKR3), formerly known as CXC-chemokine receptor 7 (CXCR7), has been postulated to regulate platelet function and thrombus formation. Herein, we report the discovery and development of first-in-class ACKR3 agonists, which demonstrated superagonistic properties with Emax values of up to 160% compared to the endogenous reference ligand CXCL12 in a ß-arrestin recruitment assay. Initial in silico screening using an ACKR3 homology model identified two hits, C10 (EC50 19.1 µM) and C11 (EC50 = 11.4 µM). Based on these hits, extensive structure-activity relationship studies were conducted by synthesis and testing of derivatives. It resulted in the identification of the novel thiadiazolopyrimidinone-based compounds 26 (LN5972, EC50 = 3.4 µM) and 27 (LN6023, EC50 = 3.5 µM). These compounds are selective for ACKR3 versus CXCR4 and show metabolic stability. In a platelet degranulation assay, these agonists effectively reduced P-selectin expression by up to 97%, suggesting potential candidates for the treatment of platelet-mediated thrombosis.

What are the challenges with multi-targeted drug design for complex diseases?

INTRODUCTION: Current findings on multifactorial diseases with a complex pathomechanism confirm that multi-target drugs are more efficient ways in treating them as opposed to single-target drugs. However, to design multi-target ligands, a number of factors and challenges must be taken into account. AREAS COVERED: In this perspective, we summarize the concept of application of multi-target drugs for the treatment of complex diseases such as neurodegenerative diseases, schizophrenia, diabetes, and cancer. We discuss the aspects of target selection for multifunctional ligands and the application of in silico methods in their design and optimization. Furthermore, we highlight other challenges such as balancing affinities to different targets and drug-likeness of obtained compounds. Finally, we present success stories in the design of multi-target ligands for the treatment of common complex diseases. EXPERT OPINION: Despite numerous challenges resulting from the design of multi-target ligands, these efforts are worth making. Appropriate target selection, activity balancing, and ligand drug-likeness belong to key aspects in the design of ligands acting on multiple targets. It should be emphasized that in silico methods, in particular inverse docking, pharmacophore modeling, machine learning methods and approaches derived from network pharmacology are valuable tools for the design of multi-target drugs.

Multitarget Derivatives of D2AAK1 as Potential Antipsychotics: The Effect of Substitution in the Indole Moiety.

Schizophrenia is a complex disease which is best treated with multitarget drugs, such as atypical antipsychotics. Previously, using structure-based virtual screening, we found a virtual hit, D2AAK1, with nanomolar affinity for dopamine and serotonin receptors important in schizophrenia pharmacotherapy. As a part of an optimization campaign of D2AAK1, we obtained 17 derivatives that also display a multitarget profile. Selected compounds were tested against off-targets in schizophrenia, i. e., histamine H1 receptor and muscarinic M1 receptor, and these did not display considerable affinity for these receptors. The two most promising compounds were subjected to behavioral studies. These compounds decreased amphetamine-induced hyperactivity in mice which indicates their antipsychotic potential. The compounds did not interfere with the memory consolidation in mice, as determined in the passive avoidance test. The favorable pharmacological profile of these compounds was rationalized using molecular modeling.

Experimental and Computational Structural Studies of 2,3,5-Trisubstituted and 1,2,3,5-Tetrasubstituted Indoles as Non-Competitive Antagonists of GluK1/GluK2 Receptors.

The blockade of kainate receptors, in particular with non-competitive antagonists, has-due to their anticonvulsant and neuroprotective properties-therapeutic potential in many central nervous system (CNS) diseases. Deciphering the structural properties of kainate receptor ligands is crucial to designing medicinal compounds that better fit the receptor binding pockets. In light of that fact, here, we report experimental and computational structural studies of four indole derivatives that are non-competitive antagonists of GluK1/GluK2 receptors. We used X-ray studies and Hirshfeld surface analysis to determine the structure of the compounds in the solid state and quantum chemical calculations to compute HOMO and LUMO orbitals and the electrostatic potential. Moreover, non-covalent interaction maps were also calculated. It is worth emphasizing that compounds 3 and 4 are achiral molecules crystallising in non-centrosymmetric space groups, which is a relatively rare phenomenon.

In vitro and in vivo evaluation of antioxidant and neuroprotective properties of antipsychotic D2AAK1.

The susceptibility of neurons to free radical toxicity partially underlies the pathomechanism of neurodegenerative diseases. On the other hand, excitotoxicity also contributes to neurodegeneration. Our previous studies demonstrated the unique properties of D2AAK1 as a potent multi-target ligand of aminergic G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) which dose-dependently stimulates growth, survival of neurons, and promotes their integrity. The aim of our study was to investigate the potential neuroprotective and antioxidant properties of D2AAK1. Here we show that D2AAK1 activates cellular and molecular neuroprotective mechanisms, prevents cells from excitotoxicity and free radicals. Furthermore, D2AAK1 induced no genotoxic events in neuronal cells in vitro. Most importantly, D2AAK1 protects neurons from the effects of high temperatures by molecular chaperones activation. The D2AAK1 effects on selected organs was further evaluated in mice and no pathological changes were observed after chronic administration. In the light of our experiments, D2AAK1 can be further developed into a potential treatment for neurodegenerative diseases, in particular related to memory impairment. In summary, D2AAK1 has promising properties for potential treatments of neurodegenerative diseases.

Screening and Structure-Activity Relationship of D2AAK1 Derivatives for Potential Application in the Treatment of Neurodegenerative Diseases.

Neurodegenerative and mental diseases are serious medical, economic and social problems. Neurodegeneration is referred to as a pathological condition associated with damage to nerve cells leading to their death. Treatment of neurodegenerative diseases is at present symptomatic only, and novel drugs are urgently needed which would be able to stop disease progression. We performed screening of reactive oxygen species, reactive nitrogen species, glutathione and level intracellular Ca2+. The studies were assessed using one-way ANOVA of variance with Dunnett's post hoc test. Previously, we reported D2AAK1 as a promising compound for the treatment of neurodegenerative and mental disorders. Here, we show a screening of D2AAK1 derivatives aimed at the selection of the compound with the most favorable pharmacological profile. Selected compounds cause an increase in the proliferation of a hippocampal neuron-like cell line, changes in the levels of reactive oxygen and nitrogen forms, reduced glutathione and a reduced intracellular calcium pool. Upon analyzing the structure-activity relationship, we selected the compound with the most favorable profile for a neuroprotective activity for potential application in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.