A Multiscale Geospatial Dataset and an Interactive Visualization Dashboard for Computational Epidemiology and Open Scientific Research.

The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) continued to strike as a highly infectious and fast-spreading disease in 2020 and 2021. As the research community actively responded to this pandemic, we saw the release of many COVID-19-related datasets and visualization dashboards. However, existing resources are insufficient to support multiscale and multifaceted modeling or simulation, which is suggested to be important by the computational epidemiology literature. This work presents a curated multiscale geospatial dataset with an interactive visualization dashboard under the context of COVID-19. This open dataset will allow researchers to conduct numerous projects or analyses relating to COVID-19 or simply geospatial-related scientific studies. The interactive visualization platform enables users to visualize the spread of the disease at different scales (e.g., country level to individual neighborhoods), and allows users to interact with the policies enforced at these scales (e.g., the closure of borders and lockdowns) to observe their impacts on the epidemiology.

Cognitive Path Planning With Spatial Memory Distortion.

Human path-planning operates differently from deterministic AI-based path-planning algorithms due to the decay and distortion in a human's spatial memory and the lack of complete scene knowledge. Here, we present a cognitive model of path-planning that simulates human-like learning of unfamiliar environments, supports systematic degradation in spatial memory, and distorts spatial recall during path-planning. We propose a Dynamic Hierarchical Cognitive Graph (DHCG) representation to encode the environment structure by incorporating two critical spatial memory biases during exploration: categorical adjustment and sequence order effect. We then extend the "Fine-To-Coarse" (FTC), the most prevalent path-planning heuristic, to incorporate spatial uncertainty during recall through the DHCG. We conducted a lab-based Virtual Reality (VR) experiment to validate the proposed cognitive path-planning model and made three observations: (1) a statistically significant impact of sequence order effect on participants' route-choices, (2) approximately three hierarchical levels in the DHCG according to participants' recall data, and (3) similar trajectories and significantly similar wayfinding performances between participants and simulated cognitive agents on identical path-planning tasks. Furthermore, we performed two detailed simulation experiments with different FTC variants on a Manhattan-style grid. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed cognitive path-planning model successfully produces human-like paths and can capture human wayfinding's complex and dynamic nature, which traditional AI-based path-planning algorithms cannot capture.

Heterogeneous Crowd Simulation Using Parametric Reinforcement Learning.

Agent-based synthetic crowd simulation affords the cost-effective large-scale simulation and animation of interacting digital humans. Model-based approaches have successfully generated a plethora of simulators with a variety of foundations. However, prior approaches have been based on statically defined models predicated on simplifying assumptions, limited video-based datasets, or homogeneous policies. Recent works have applied reinforcement learning to learn policies for navigation. However, these approaches may learn static homogeneous rules, are typically limited in their generalization to trained scenarios, and limited in their usability in synthetic crowd domains. In this article, we present a multi-agent reinforcement learning-based approach that learns a parametric predictive collision avoidance and steering policy. We show that training over a parameter space produces a flexible model across crowd configurations. That is, our goal-conditioned approach learns a parametric policy that affords heterogeneous synthetic crowds. We propose a model-free approach without centralization of internal agent information, control signals, or agent communication. The model is extensively evaluated. The results show policy generalization across unseen scenarios, agent parameters, and out-of-distribution parameterizations. The learned model has comparable computational performance to traditional methods. Qualitatively the model produces both expected (laminar flow, shuffling, bottleneck) and unexpected (side-stepping) emergent qualitative behaviours, and quantitatively the approach is performant across measures of movement quality.

Gamification of Crowd-Driven Environment Design.

This article explores whether crowd-sourced human creativity within a gamified collaborative design framework can address the complexity of predictive environment design. This framework is predicated on gamifying crowd objectives and presenting environment design problems as puzzles. A usability study reveals that the framework is considered usable for the task. Participants were asked to configure an environment puzzle to reduce an important crowd metric, the total egress time. The design task was constructed to be straightforward and uses a simplified environment as a probe for understanding the utility of gamification and the performance of collaboration. Single-player and multiplayer designs outperformed both optimization and expert-sourced designs of the same environment and multiplayer designs further outperformed the single-player designs. Single-player and multiplayer iterations followed linear and exponential decrease trends in total egress time, respectively. Our experiments provide strong evidence toward an interesting novel approach of crowdsourcing collaborative environment design.

Interactive Architectural Design with Diverse Solution Exploration.

In architectural design, architects explore a vast amount of design options to maximize various performance criteria, while adhering to specific constraints. In an effort to assist architects in such a complex endeavour, we propose IDOME, an interactive system for computer-aided design optimization. Our approach balances automation and control by efficiently exploring, analyzing, and filtering space layouts to inform architects' decision-making better. At each design iteration, IDOME provides a set of alternative building layouts which satisfy user-defined constraints and optimality criteria concerning a user-defined space parametrization. When the user selects a design generated by IDOME, the system performs a similar optimization process with the same (or different) parameters and objectives. A user may iterate this exploration process as many times as needed. In this work, we focus on optimizing built environments using architectural metrics by improving the degree of visibility, accessibility, and information gaining for navigating a proposed space. This approach, however, can be extended to support other kinds of analysis as well. We demonstrate the capabilities of IDOME through a series of examples, performance analysis, user studies, and a usability test. The results indicate that IDOME successfully optimizes the proposed designs concerning the chosen metrics and offers a satisfactory experience for users with minimal training.

Assessing crowd management strategies for the 2010 Love Parade disaster using computer simulations and virtual reality.

Dense crowds in public spaces have often caused serious security issues at large events. In this paper, we study the 2010 Love Parade disaster, for which a large amount of data (e.g. research papers, professional reports and video footage) exist. We reproduce the Love Parade disaster in a three-dimensional computer simulation calibrated with data from the actual event and using the social force model for pedestrian behaviour. Moreover, we simulate several crowd management strategies and investigate their ability to prevent the disaster. We evaluate these strategies in virtual reality (VR) by measuring the response and arousal of participants while experiencing the simulated event from a festival attendee's perspective. Overall, we find that opening an additional exit and removing the police cordons could have significantly reduced the number of casualties. We also find that this strategy affects the physiological responses of the participants in VR.

The interaction between map complexity and crowd movement on navigation decisions in virtual reality.

A carefully designed map can reduce pedestrians' cognitive load during wayfinding and may be an especially useful navigation aid in crowded public environments. In the present paper, we report three studies that investigated the effects of map complexity and crowd movement on wayfinding time, accuracy and hesitation using both online and laboratory-based networked virtual reality (VR) platforms. In the online study, we found that simple map designs led to shorter decision times and higher accuracy compared to complex map designs. In the networked VR set-up, we found that co-present participants made very few errors. In the final VR study, we replayed the traces of participants' avatars from the second study so that they indicated a different direction than the maps. In this scenario, we found an interaction between map design and crowd movement in terms of decision time and the distributions of locations at which participants hesitated. Together, these findings can help the designers of maps for public spaces account for the movements of real crowds.

A Networked Desktop Virtual Reality Setup for Decision Science and Navigation Experiments with Multiple Participants.

Investigating the interactions among multiple participants is a challenge for researchers from various disciplines, including the decision sciences and spatial cognition. With a local area network and dedicated software platform, experimenters can efficiently monitor the behavior of the participants that are simultaneously immersed in a desktop virtual environment and digitalize the collected data. These capabilities allow for experimental designs in spatial cognition and navigation research that would be difficult (if not impossible) to conduct in the real world. Possible experimental variations include stress during an evacuation, cooperative and competitive search tasks, and other contextual factors that may influence emergent crowd behavior. However, such a laboratory requires maintenance and strict protocols for data collection in a controlled setting. While the external validity of laboratory studies with human participants is sometimes questioned, a number of recent papers suggest that the correspondence between real and virtual environments may be sufficient for studying social behavior in terms of trajectories, hesitations, and spatial decisions. In this article, we describe a method for conducting experiments on decision-making and navigation with up to 36 participants in a networked desktop virtual reality setup (i.e., the Decision Science Laboratory or DeSciL). This experiment protocol can be adapted and applied by other researchers in order to set up a networked desktop virtual reality laboratory.

Virtual Sensing and Virtual Reality: How New Technologies Can Boost Research on Crowd Dynamics.

The collective behavior of human crowds often exhibits surprisingly regular patterns of movement. These patterns stem from social interactions between pedestrians such as when individuals imitate others, follow their neighbors, avoid collisions with other pedestrians, or push each other. While some of these patterns are beneficial and promote efficient collective motion, others can seriously disrupt the flow, ultimately leading to deadly crowd disasters. Understanding the dynamics of crowd movements can help urban planners manage crowd safety in dense urban areas and develop an understanding of dynamic social systems. However, the study of crowd behavior has been hindered by technical and methodological challenges. Laboratory experiments involving large crowds can be difficult to organize, and quantitative field data collected from surveillance cameras are difficult to evaluate. Nevertheless, crowd research has undergone important developments in the past few years that have led to numerous research opportunities. For example, the development of crowd monitoring based on the virtual signals emitted by pedestrians' smartphones has changed the way researchers collect and analyze live field data. In addition, the use of virtual reality, and multi-user platforms in particular, have paved the way for new types of experiments. In this review, we describe these methodological developments in detail and discuss how these novel technologies can be used to deepen our understanding of crowd behavior.

Evaluating and Optimizing Evacuation Plans for Crowd Egress.

Evacuation planning is an important and difficult task in building design. The proposed framework can identify optimal evacuation plans using decision points, which control the ratio of agents that select a particular route at a specific spatial location. The authors optimize these ratios to achieve the best evacuation based on a quantitatively validated metric for evacuation performance. This metric captures many of the important aspects of an evacuation: total evacuation time, average evacuation time, agent speed, and local agent density. The proposed approach was validated using a night club model that incorporates real data from an actual evacuation.

Crowd behaviour during high-stress evacuations in an immersive virtual environment.

Understanding the collective dynamics of crowd movements during stressful emergency situations is central to reducing the risk of deadly crowd disasters. Yet, their systematic experimental study remains a challenging open problem due to ethical and methodological constraints. In this paper, we demonstrate the viability of shared three-dimensional virtual environments as an experimental platform for conducting crowd experiments with real people. In particular, we show that crowds of real human subjects moving and interacting in an immersive three-dimensional virtual environment exhibit typical patterns of real crowds as observed in real-life crowded situations. These include the manifestation of social conventions and the emergence of self-organized patterns during egress scenarios. High-stress evacuation experiments conducted in this virtual environment reveal movements characterized by mass herding and dangerous overcrowding as they occur in crowd disasters. We describe the behavioural mechanisms at play under such extreme conditions and identify critical zones where overcrowding may occur. Furthermore, we show that herding spontaneously emerges from a density effect without the need to assume an increase of the individual tendency to imitate peers. Our experiments reveal the promise of immersive virtual environments as an ethical, cost-efficient, yet accurate platform for exploring crowd behaviour in high-risk situations with real human subjects.

ADAPT: The Agent Development and Prototyping Testbed.

We present ADAPT, a flexible platform for designing and authoring functional, purposeful human characters in a rich virtual environment. Our framework incorporates character animation, navigation, and behavior with modular interchangeable components to produce narrative scenes. The animation system provides locomotion, reaching, gaze tracking, gesturing, sitting, and reactions to external physical forces, and can easily be extended with more functionality due to a decoupled, modular structure. The navigation component allows characters to maneuver through a complex environment with predictive steering for dynamic obstacle avoidance. Finally, our behavior framework allows a user to fully leverage a character's animation and navigation capabilities when authoring both individual decision-making and complex interactions between actors using a centralized, event-driven model.

Navigation and steering for autonomous virtual humans.

The ever-increasing applicability of interactive virtual worlds in industry and academia has given rise to the need for robust, versatile autonomous virtual humans to inject life into these environments. There are two fundamental problems that must be addressed to produce functional, purposeful autonomous populaces: (1)Navigation: finding a collision-free global path from an agent's start position to its target in large complex environments, and (2) Steering: moving an agent along the path while avoiding static and dynamic threats such as other agents. In this review, we survey the large body of contributions in steering and navigation for autonomous agents in dynamic virtual worlds. We describe the benefits and limitations of different proposed solutions and identify potential future research directions to meet the needs for the next generation of interactive virtual world applications. WIREs Cogn Sci 2013, 4:263-272. doi: 10.1002/wcs.1223 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.