Facilitators, barriers, and key influencers of breastfeeding among low birthweight infants: a qualitative study in India, Malawi, and Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Low birthweight (LBW) infants are at increased risk of morbidity and mortality. Exclusive breastfeeding up to six months is recommended to help them thrive through infection prevention, growth improvements, and enhancements in neurodevelopment. However, limited data exist on the feeding experiences of LBW infants, their caregivers and key community influencers. The qualitative component of the Low Birthweight Infant Feeding Exploration (LIFE) study aimed to understand practices, facilitators, and barriers to optimal feeding options in the first six months for LBW infants in low-resource settings. METHODS: This study was conducted in four sites in India, Malawi, and Tanzania from July 2019 to August 2020. We conducted 37 focus group discussions with mothers and family members of LBW infants and community leaders and 142 in-depth interviews with healthcare providers, government officials, and supply chain and donor human milk (DHM) experts. Data were analyzed using a framework approach. RESULTS: All participants believed that mother's own milk was best for LBW infants. Direct breastfeeding was predominant and feeding expressed breast milk and infant formula were rare. DHM was a new concept for most. Adequate maternal nutrition, lactation support, and privacy in the facility aided breastfeeding and expression, but perceived insufficient milk, limited feeding counseling, and infant immaturity were common barriers. Most believed that DHM uptake could be enabled through community awareness by overcoming misconceptions, safety concerns, and perceived family resistance. CONCLUSION: This study fills an evidence gap in LBW infant feeding practices and their facilitators and barriers in resource-limited settings. LBW infants face unique feeding challenges such as poor latching and tiring at the breast. Similarly, their mothers are faced with numerous difficulties, including attainment of adequate milk supply, breast pain and emotional stress. Lactation support and feeding counseling could address obstacles faced by mothers and infants by providing psychosocial, verbal and physical support to empower mothers with skills, knowledge and confidence and facilitate earlier, more and better breast milk feeding. Findings on DHM are critical to the future development of human milk banks and highlight the need to solicit partnership from stakeholders in the community and health system.

Impact of a school-based nutrition educational intervention on knowledge related to iron deficiency anaemia in rural Karnataka, India: A mixed methods pre-post interventional study.

OBJECTIVE: To understand the extent to which adolescent awareness about anaemia and anaemia prevention can be changed by nutrition messages received at school. DESIGN: Mixed-methods pre-post intervention study. SETTING: Three government schools in Bagalkot, Belagavi and Raichur districts of Karnataka, India. POPULATION: Students of grade six and seven and teachers involved in implementing the intervention. METHODS: An educational intervention was co-developed by school teachers and nutrition experts using locally adapted resource materials that consisted of lectures, role play and practical demonstrations. Seven half-hour educational sessions were delivered by school teachers over 7 weeks to 455 students. Pre- and post-intervention tests measured changes in adolescents' knowledge about anaemia. Semi-structured in-depth interviews with teachers and focus groups with students explored their reactions to the intervention. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Knowledge score related to anaemia. RESULTS: The percentage of children with correct scores increased by 7.3-49.0 percentage points for the tested questions after implementation of the intervention. The mean knowledge score increased by 3.67 ± 0.17 (p < 0.01). During interviews, teachers and students highlighted high acceptance of the intervention and materials, an increase in awareness, a positive attitude towards changing behaviour around diet, an increase in the demand for iron and folic acid supplements and improved sharing of messages learned with peers and families. Challenges expressed included need for further training, time limitations and hesitancy in teaching about menstruation and pregnancy. CONCLUSIONS: Educational interventions carried out for adolescents by teachers in schools are effective in improving awareness and attitude related to anaemia and its prevention.

Attention for and awareness of anemia in adolescents in Karnataka, India: A qualitative study.

Between 1990 and 2016 the number of adolescents with anemia world-wide increased by 20% to almost one in four. Iron deficiency in adolescence results in compromised growth, decreased cognitive function, and depressed immune function, and can increase the risk of negative outcomes in pregnancy, especially in the case of young adolescents. In India, despite several decades of governmental investment in anemia prevention and treatment, more than half of women of reproductive age are anemic, with rates even higher in the adolescent population. Although awareness of adolescence as a nutrition-sensitive developmental stage is increasing, there is a lack of qualitative research on the perspectives of adolescents and families on anemia and related services. In this study, we explored the issues influencing adolescents' awareness of anemia in three rural areas of Karnataka. Sixty-four in-depth interviews and six focus group discussions were conducted with adolescents (those who had never been pregnant, pregnant adolescents, and young mothers), community members, and nutrition-related service providers in the health and education sectors. An inductive analytical approach was used. We found that adolescent girls, particularly those who have not experienced pregnancy or motherhood, had very low awareness of anemia. State programs including school-based distribution of iron and folic acid supplements and nutrition talks were not seen to be resulting in knowledge and acceptance of the importance of preventing anemia. Pregnancy represents a turning point in which adolescents are systematically tested for anemia as part of routine antenatal care, increasing their awareness of, and access to, treatment for the condition. At the same time, pregnancy represents to family and community a period to insist on a nutritious diet. For progress in anemia reduction to be made, improved age-appropriate measures specific for adolescence are required. Improving school-based nutrition outreach is an important opportunity to reach adolescents.

Community engagement for birth preparedness and complication readiness in the Community Level Interventions for Pre-eclampsia (CLIP) Trial in India: a mixed-method evaluation.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the process of community engagement (CE) in northern Karnataka, India and its impact on pre-eclampsia knowledge, birth preparedness and complication readiness, pregnancy-related care seeking and maternal morbidity. DESIGN: This study was a secondary analysis of a cluster randomised trial of Community Level Interventions for Pre-eclampsia (CLIP). A total of 12 clusters based on primary health centre catchment areas were randomised to intervention or control. CE was conducted in intervention clusters. CE attendance was summarised according to participant group using both quantitative and qualitative assessment. Pre-eclampsia knowledge, birth preparedness, health services engagement and perinatal outcomes was evaluated within trial surveillance. Outcomes were compared between trial arms using a mixed effects logistic regression model on RStudio (RStudio, Boston, USA). Community feedback notes were thematically analysed on NVivo V.12 (QSR International, Melbourne, Australia). SETTING: Belagavi and Bagalkote districts in rural Karnataka, India. PARTICIPANTS: Pregnant women and women of reproductive age, mothers and mothers-in-law, community stakeholders and male household decision-makers and health workers. RESULTS: A total of 1379 CE meetings were conducted with 39 362 participants between November 2014 and October 2016. CE activities may have had an effect on modifying community attitudes towards hypertension in pregnancy and its complications. However, rates of pre-eclampsia knowledge, birth preparedness, health services engagement and maternal morbidities among individual pregnant women were not significantly impacted by CE activities in their area. CONCLUSION: Evaluation of our CE programme in India demonstrates the feasibility of reaching pregnant women alongside household decision-makers, community stakeholders and health workers. More research is needed to explore the pathways of impact between broad community mobilisation to strengthen support for maternal care seeking and clinical outcomes of individual pregnant women. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT01911494.

Community level interventions for pre-eclampsia (CLIP) in India: A cluster randomised controlled trial.

OBJECTIVES: Pregnancy hypertension is associated with 7.1% of maternal deaths in India. The objective of this trial was to assess whether task-sharing care might reduce adverse pregnancy outcomes related to delays in triage, transport, and treatment. STUDY DESIGN: The Indian Community-Level Interventions for Pre-eclampsia (CLIP) open-label cluster randomised controlled trial (NCT01911494) recruited pregnant women in 12 clusters (initial four-cluster internal pilot) in Belagavi and Bagalkote, Karnataka. The CLIP intervention (6 clusters) consisted of community engagement, community health workers (CHW) provided mobile health (mHeath)-guided clinical assessment, initial treatment, and referral to facility either urgently (<4 h) or non-urgently (<24 h), dependent on algorithm-defined risk. Treatment effect was estimated by multi-level logistic regression modelling, adjusted for prognostically-significant baseline variables. Predefined secondary analyses included safety and evaluation of the intensity of mHealth-guided CHW-provided contacts. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: 20% reduction in composite of maternal, fetal, and newborn mortality and major morbidity. RESULTS: All 14,783 recruited pregnancies (7839 intervention, 6944 control) were followed-up. The primary outcome did not differ between intervention and control arms (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 0.92 [95% confidence interval 0.74, 1.15]; p = 0.47; intraclass correlation coefficient 0.013). There were no intervention-related safety concerns following administration of either methyldopa or MgSO4, and 401 facility referrals. Compared with intervention arm women without CLIP contacts, those with ≥8 contacts suffered fewer stillbirths (aOR 0.19 [0.10, 0.35]; p < 0.001), at the probable expense of survivable neonatal morbidity (aOR 1.39 [0.97, 1.99]; p = 0.072). CONCLUSIONS: As implemented, solely community-level interventions focussed on pre-eclampsia did not improve outcomes in northwest Karnataka.

The feasibility of task-sharing the identification, emergency treatment, and referral for women with pre-eclampsia by community health workers in India.

BACKGROUND: Hypertensive disorders are the second highest direct obstetric cause of maternal death after haemorrhage, accounting for 14% of maternal deaths globally. Pregnancy hypertension contributes to maternal deaths, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, due to a scarcity of doctors providing evidence-based emergency obstetric care. Task-sharing some obstetric responsibilities may help to reduce the mortality rates. This study was conducted to assess acceptability by the community and other healthcare providers, for task-sharing by community health workers (CHW) in the identification and initial care in hypertensive disorders in pregnancy. METHODS: This study was conducted in two districts of Karnataka state in south India. A total of 14 focus group discussions were convened with various community representatives: women of reproductive age (N = 6), male decision-makers (N = 2), female decision-makers (N = 3), and community leaders (N = 3). One-to-one interviews were held with medical officers (N = 2), private healthcare OBGYN specialists (N = 2), senior health administrators (N = 2), Taluka (county) health officers (N = 2), and obstetricians (N = 4). All data collection was facilitated by local researchers familiar with the setting and language. Data were subsequently transcribed, translated and analysed thematically using NVivo 10 software. RESULTS: There was strong community support for home visits by CHW to measure the blood pressure of pregnant women; however, respondents were concerned about their knowledge, training and effectiveness. The treatment with oral antihypertensive agents and magnesium sulphate in emergencies was accepted by community representatives but medical practitioners and health administrators had reservations, and insisted on emergency transport to a higher facility. The most important barriers for task-sharing were concerns regarding insufficient training, limited availability of medications, the questionable validity of blood pressure devices, and the ability of CHW to correctly diagnose and intervene in cases of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. CONCLUSION: Task-sharing to community-based health workers has potential to facilitate early diagnosis of the hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and assist in the provision of emergency care. We identified some facilitators and barriers for successful task-sharing of emergency obstetric care aimed at reducing mortality and morbidity due to hypertensive disorders of pregnancy.

Availability and use of magnesium sulphate at health care facilities in two selected districts of North Karnataka, India.

BACKGROUND: Pre-eclampsia and eclampsia are major causes of maternal morbidity and mortality. Magnesium sulphate is accepted as the anticonvulsant of choice in these conditions and is present on the WHO essential medicines list and the Indian National List of Essential Medicines, 2015. Despite this, magnesium sulphate is not widely used in India for pre-eclampsia and eclampsia. In addition to other factors, lack of availability may be a reason for sub-optimal usage. This study was undertaken to assess the availability and use of magnesium sulphate at public and private health care facilities in two districts of North Karnataka, India. METHODS: A facility assessment survey was undertaken as part of the Community Level Interventions for Pre-eclampsia (CLIP) Feasibility Study which was undertaken prior to the CLIP Trials (NCT01911494). This study was undertaken in 12 areas of Belagavi and Bagalkote districts of North Karnataka, India and included a survey of 88 facilities. Data were collected in all facilities by interviewing the health care providers and analysed using Excel. RESULTS: Of the 88 facilities, 28 were public, and 60 were private. In the public facilities, magnesium sulphate was available in six out of 10 Primary Health Centres (60%), in all eight taluka (sub-district) hospitals (100%), five of eight community health centres (63%) and both district hospitals (100%). Fifty-five of 60 private facilities (92%) reported availability of magnesium sulphate. Stock outs were reported in six facilities in the preceding six months - five public and one private. Twenty-five percent weight/volume and 50% weight/volume concentration formulations were available variably across the public and private facilities. Sixty-eight facilities (77%) used the drug for severe pre-eclampsia and 12 facilities (13.6%) did not use the drug even for eclampsia. Varied dosing schedules were reported from facility to facility. CONCLUSIONS: Poor availability of magnesium sulphate was identified in many facilities, and stock outs in some. Individual differences in usage were identified. Ensuring a reliable supply of magnesium sulphate, standard formulations and recommendations of dosage schedules and training may help improve use; and decrease morbidity and mortality due to pre-eclampsia/ eclampsia. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The CLIP trial was registered with ClinicalTrials.gov ( NCT01911494 ).

Maternal and Newborn Health in Karnataka State, India: The Community Level Interventions for Pre-Eclampsia (CLIP) Trial's Baseline Study Results.

Existing vital health statistics registries in India have been unable to provide reliable estimates of maternal and newborn mortality and morbidity, and region-specific health estimates are essential to the planning and monitoring of health interventions. This study was designed to assess baseline rates as the precursor to a community-based cluster randomized control trial (cRCT)-Community Level Interventions for Pre-eclampsia (CLIP) Trial (NCT01911494; CTRI/2014/01/004352). The objective was to describe baseline demographics and health outcomes prior to initiation of the CLIP trial and to improve knowledge of population-level health, in particular of maternal and neonatal outcomes related to hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, in northern districts the state of Karnataka, India. The prospective population-based survey was conducted in eight clusters in Belgaum and Bagalkot districts in Karnataka State from 2013-2014. Data collection was undertaken by adapting the Maternal and Newborn Health registry platform, developed by the Global Network for Women's and Child Health Studies. Descriptive statistics were completed using SAS and R. During the period of 2013-2014, prospective data was collected on 5,469 pregnant women with an average age of 23.2 (+/-3.3) years. Delivery outcomes were collected from 5,448 completed pregnancies. A majority of the women reported institutional deliveries (96.0%), largely attended by skilled birth attendants. The maternal mortality ratio of 103 (per 100,000 livebirths) was observed during this study, neonatal mortality ratio was 25 per 1,000 livebirths, and perinatal mortality ratio was 50 per 1,000 livebirths. Despite a high number of institutional deliveries, rates of stillbirth were 2.86%. Early enrollment and close follow-up and monitoring procedures established by the Maternal and Newborn Health registry allowed for negligible lost to follow-up. This population-level study provides regional rates of maternal and newborn health in Belgaum and Bagalkot in Karnataka over 2013-14. The mortality ratios and morbidity information can be used in planning interventions and monitoring indicators of effectiveness to inform policy and practice. Comprehensive regional epidemiologic data, such as that provided here, is essential to gauge improvements and challenges in maternal health, as well as track disparities found in rural areas.

Community health worker knowledge and management of pre-eclampsia in rural Karnataka State, India.

BACKGROUND: In India, the hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and postpartum haemorrhage are responsible for nearly 40 % of all maternal deaths. Most of these deaths occur in primary health settings which frequently lack essential equipment and medication, are understaffed, and have limited or no access to specialist care. Community health care workers are regarded as essential providers of basic maternity care; and the quality of care they provide is dependent on the level of knowledge and skills they possess. However, there is limited research regarding their ability to manage pregnancy complications. This study aims to describe the current state of knowledge regarding pre-eclampsia and eclampsia among community health care workers (auxiliary nurse midwives, accredited social health activists, staff nurses) in northern Karnataka, India. Furthermore, this study describes the treatment approaches used by various cadres of community health workers for these conditions. The findings of this study can help plan focussed training sessions to build upon their strengths and to address the identified gaps. METHODS: Data were collected as part of a larger study aimed at assessing the feasibility of community-based treatment for pre-eclampsia. Eight focus group discussions were conducted in 2012-2013 in northern Karnataka State: four with staff nurses and auxiliary nurse midwives and four with accredited social health activists. In addition, twelve auxiliary nurse midwives and staff nurses completed questionnaires to explore their competence and self-efficacy in managing pre-eclampsia. Qualitative data were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim and translated for thematic analysis using NVivo 10. RESULTS: Community health workers described their understanding of the origins of hypertension and seizures in pregnancy. Psychological explanations of hypertension were most commonly reported: stress, tension, and fear. The most common explanation for eclampsia was not receiving a tetanus vaccination. Despite some common misperceptions regarding aetiology, these community health workers demonstrated a good grasp of the potential consequences of hypertension in pregnancy. According to auxiliary nurse midwives and staff nurses, if hypertension was detected they encouraged rest, decreased salt intake, iron supplementation and tetanus vaccination. In addition, some staff nurses administered antihypertensives, MgSO4, or other anticonvulsants. All auxiliary nurse midwives had some awareness of MgSO4, but none had administered it themselves. CONCLUSIONS: This study showed that knowledge regarding the aetiology of pre-eclampsia was limited. Nevertheless, their basic knowledge and skills could be strengthened to more effectively manage the hypertensive disorders of pregnancy in their communities. TRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT01911494.

Community perceptions of pre-eclampsia in rural Karnataka State, India: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Maternal deaths have been attributed in large part to delays in recognition of illness, timely transport to facility, and timely treatment once there. As community perceptions of pregnancy and their complications are critical to averting maternal morbidity and mortality, this study sought to contribute to the literature and explore community-based understandings of pre-eclampsia and eclampsia. METHODS: The study was conducted in rural Karnataka State, India, in 2012-2013. Fourteen focus groups were held with the following community stakeholders: three with community leaders (n = 27), two with male decision-makers (n = 19), three with female decision-makers (n = 41), and six with reproductive age women (n = 132). Focus groups were facilitated by local researchers with clinical and research expertise. Discussions were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim and translated to English for thematic analysis using NVivo 10. RESULTS: Terminology exists in the local language (Kannada) to describe convulsions and hypertension, but there were no terms that are specific to pregnancy. Community participants perceived stress, tension and poor diet to be precipitants of hypertension in pregnancy. Seizures in pregnancy were thought to be brought on by anaemia, poor medical adherence, lack of tetanus toxoid immunization, and exposure in pregnancy to fire or water. Sweating, fatigue, dizziness-unsteadiness, swelling, and irritability were perceived to be signs of hypertension, which was recognized to have the potential to lead to eclampsia or death. Home remedies, such as providing the smell of onion, placing an iron object in the hands, or squeezing the fingers and toes, were all used regularly to treat seizures prior to accessing facility-based care although transport is not delayed. CONCLUSIONS: It is evident that 'pre-eclampsia' and 'eclampsia' are not well-known; instead hypertension and seizures are perceived as conditions that may occur during or outside pregnancy. Improving community knowledge about, and modifying attitudes towards, hypertension in pregnancy and its complications (including eclampsia) has the potential to address community-based delays in disease recognition and delays in treatment that contribute to maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality. Advocacy and educational initiatives should be designed to target knowledge gaps and potentially harmful practices, and respond to cultural understandings of disease. TRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT01911494.

Utilization of maternal health care services and their determinants in Karnataka State, India.

BACKGROUND: Karnataka State continues to have the highest rates of maternal mortality in south India at 144/100,000 live births, but lower than the national estimates of 190-220/100,000 live births. Various barriers exist to timely and appropriate utilization of services during pregnancy, childbirth and postpartum. This study aimed to describe the patterns and determinants of routine and emergency maternal health care utilization in rural Karnataka State, India. METHODS: This study was conducted in Karnataka in 2012-2013. Purposive sampling was used to convene twenty three focus groups and twelve individual interviews with community and health system representatives: Auxiliary Nurse Midwives and Staff Nurses, Accredited Social Health Activists, community leaders, male decision-makers, female decision-makers, women of reproductive age, medical officers, private health care providers, senior health administrators, District health officers, and obstetricians. Local researchers familiar with the setting and language conducted all focus groups and interviews, these researchers were not known to community participants. All discussions were audio recorded, transcribed, and translated to English for analysis. A thematic analysis approach was taken utilizing an a priori thematic framework as well as inductive identification of themes. RESULTS: Most women in the focus groups reported regular antenatal care attendance, for an average of four visits, and more often for high-risk pregnancies. Antenatal care was typically delivered at the periphery by non-specialised providers. Participants reported that sought was care women experienced danger signs of complications. Postpartum care was reportedly rare, and mainly sought for the purpose of neonatal care. Factors that influenced women's care-seeking included their limited autonomy, poor access to and funding for transport for non-emergent conditions, perceived poor quality of health care facilities, and the costs of care. CONCLUSIONS: Rural south Indian communities reported regular use of health care services during pregnancy and for delivery. Uptake of maternity care services was attributed to new government programmes and increased availability of maternity services; nevertheless, some women delayed disclosure of pregnancy and first antenatal visit. Community-based initiatives should be enhanced to encourage early disclosure of pregnancies and to provide the community information regarding the importance of facility-based care. Health facility infrastructure in rural Karnataka should also be enhanced to ensure a consistent power supply and improved cleanliness on the wards. TRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT01911494.