The effects of radiofrequency exposure on cognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis of human observational studies.

BACKGROUND: We aimed to assess evidence of long-term effects of exposure to radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields (EMF) on indicators of cognition, including domains of learning and memory, executive function, complex attention, language, perceptual motor ability and social cognition, and of an exposure-response relationship between RF-EMF and cognition. METHODS: We searched PubMed, Embase, PsycInfo and the EMF-Portal on September 30, 2022 without limiting by date or language of publication. We included cohort or case-control studies that evaluated the effects of RF exposure on cognitive function in one or more of the cognitive domains. Studies were rated for risk of bias using the OHAT tool and synthesised using fixed effects meta-analysis. We assessed the certainty of the evidence using the GRADE approach and considered modification by OHAT for assessing evidence of exposures. RESULTS: We included 5 studies that reported analyses of data from 4 cohorts with 4639 participants consisting of 2808 adults and 1831 children across three countries (Australia, Singapore and Switzerland) conducted between 2006 and 2017. The main source of RF-EMF exposure was mobile (cell) phone use measured as calls per week or minutes per day. For mobile phone use in children, two studies (615 participants) that compared an increase in mobile phone use to a decrease or no change were included in meta-analyses. Learning and memory. There was little effect on accuracy (mean difference, MD -0.03; 95% CI -0.07 to 0.02) or response time (MD -0.01; 95% CI -0.04 to 0.02) on the one-back memory task; and accuracy (MD -0.02; 95%CI -0.04 to 0.00) or response time (MD -0.01; 95%CI -0.04 to 0.03) on the one card learning task (low certainty evidence for all outcomes). Executive function. There was little to no effect on the Stroop test for the time ratio ((B-A)/A) response (MD 0.02; 95% CI -0.01 to 0.04, very low certainty) or the time ratio ((D-C)/C) response (MD 0.00; 95% CI -0.06 to 0.05, very low certainty), with both tests measuring susceptibility to interference effects. Complex attention. There was little to no effect on detection task accuracy (MD 0.02; 95% CI -0.04 to 0.08), or response time (MD 0.02;95% CI 0.01 to 0.03), and little to no effect on identification task accuracy (MD 0.00; 95% CI -0.04 to 0.05) or response time (MD 0.00;95% CI -0.01 to 0.02) (low certainty evidence for all outcomes). No other cognitive domains were investigated in children. A single study among elderly people provided very low certainty evidence that more frequent mobile phone use may have little to no effect on the odds of a decline in global cognitive function (odds ratio, OR 0.81; 95% CI 0.42 to 1.58, 649 participants) or a decline in executive function (OR 1.07; 95% CI 0.37 to 3.05, 146 participants), and may lead to a small, probably unimportant, reduction in the odds of a decline in complex attention (OR 0.67;95%CI 0.27 to 1.68, 159 participants) and a decline in learning and memory (OR 0.75; 95% CI 0.29 to 1.99, 159 participants). An exposure-response relationship was not identified for any of the cognitive outcomes. DISCUSSION: This systematic review and meta-analysis found only a few studies that provided very low to low certainty evidence of little to no association between RF-EMF exposure and learning and memory, executive function and complex attention. None of the studies among children reported on global cognitive function or other domains of cognition. Only one study reported a lack of an effect for all domains in elderly persons but this was of very low certainty evidence. Further studies are needed to address all types of populations, exposures and cognitive outcomes, particularly studies investigating environmental and occupational exposure in adults. Future studies also need to address uncertainties in the assessment of exposure and standardise testing of specific domains of cognitive function to enable synthesis across studies and increase the certainty of the evidence. OTHER: This review was partially funded by the WHO radioprotection programme and prospectively registered on PROSPERO CRD42021257548.

Design and Implementation of a Specialised Millimetre-Wave Exposure System for Investigating the Radiation Effects of 5G and Future Technologies.

As the fifth-generation (5G) network is introduced in the millimetre-wave (mmWave) spectrum, and the widespread deployment of 5G standalone (SA) is approaching, it becomes essential to establish scientifically grounded exposure limits in the mmWave frequency band. To achieve this, conducting experiments at specific frequencies is crucial for obtaining reliable evidence of potential biological impacts. However, there is a literature gap where experimental research either does not utilise the mmWave high band (e.g., the 26 Gigahertz (GHz) band) or most studies mainly rely on computational approaches. Moreover, some experimental studies do not establish reproducible test environment and exposure systems. Addressing these gaps is vital for a comprehensive exploration of the biological implications associated with mmWave exposure. This study was designed to develop and implement a mmWave exposure system operating at 26 GHz. The step-by-step design and development of the system are explained. This specialised system was designed and implemented within an anechoic chamber to minimise external electromagnetic (EM) interference, creating a controlled and reproducible environment for experiments involving high-frequency EM fields. The exposure system features a 1 cm radiation spot size, enabling highly localised exposure for various biological studies. This configuration facilitates numerous dosimetry studies related to mmWave frequencies.

ICNIRP Statement on Short Wavelength Light Exposure from Indoor Artificial Sources and Human Health.

ABSTRACT: Concerns have been raised about the possibility of effects from exposure to short wavelength light (SWL), defined here as 380-550 nm, on human health. The spectral sensitivity of the human circadian timing system peaks at around 480 nm, much shorter than the peak sensitivity of daytime vision (i.e., 555 nm). Some experimental studies have demonstrated effects on the circadian timing system and on sleep from SWL exposure, especially when SWL exposure occurs in the evening or at night. The International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) has identified a lack of consensus among public health officials regarding whether SWL from artificial sources disrupts circadian rhythm, and if so, whether SWL-disrupted circadian rhythm is associated with adverse health outcomes. Systematic reviews of studies designed to examine the effects of SWL on sleep and human health have shown conflicting results. There are many variables that can affect the outcome of these experimental studies. One of the main problems in earlier studies was the use of photometric quantities as a surrogate for SWL exposure. Additionally, the measurement of ambient light may not be an accurate measure of the amount of light impinging on the intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells, which are now known to play a major role in the human circadian timing system. Furthermore, epidemiological studies of long-term effects of chronic SWL exposure per se on human health are lacking. ICNIRP recommends that an analysis of data gaps be performed to delineate the types of studies needed, the parameters that should be addressed, and the methodology that should be applied in future studies so that a decision about the need for exposure guidelines can be made. In the meantime, ICNIRP supports some recommendations for how the quality of future studies might be improved.

Community engagement programs on radiation and health: addressing public concerns.

OBJECTIVE: Due to the negative connotations around radiation, there is a great deal of angst in the community regarding radiation exposure and health; especially electromagnetic radiation (EMR) sources such as powerlines, mobile phone towers and the rollout of the 5G network. As such, it is important for health authorities to provide the public with information and assurances regarding radiation safety. The Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA) set up community engagement programs to address community concerns. Type of program or service: From 2003 until April 2022, ARPANSA operated a Health Complaints Register, which collected reports of health complaints from members of the public related to possible EMR exposures. METHODS: Collected data was used to produce annual statistical summaries on the nature and level of complaints received. Since 2016, ARPANSA has also run the Talk to a Scientist program, which allows the public to communicate directly with scientists on issues about radiation exposure, health and protection in Australia. Data is collected on the type of radiation and radiation source. RESULTS: There was a low level of interest in the Register, with only 180 reports received over the duration of its operation. Smart meters were the most common source of EMR exposure reported to be responsible for adverse health effects. The most common adverse health effect reported was headaches. The Register was closed in April 2022 due to a lack of interest. In contrast, the Talk to a Scientist program has responded to 6546 enquiries since 2016, most of which have been on EMR sources and the success of the Talk to a Scientist program, which rendered the Register obsolete. LESSONS LEARNT: The EMR Health Complaints Register never received much interest from the public, potentially due to a perceived lack of engagement with authorities. The Talk to a Scientist program, which facilitated direct interaction with subject matter experts, has been much more successful in engaging with the public and addressing community concerns on radiation safety.

Prevalence of cataract among Australian commercial airline pilots.

Because little is known about cataract in pilots, we estimated prevalence by anonymously ascertaining all commercial airline pilots diagnosed with cataract 2011-2016 using the electronic Medical Records System of the Australian Civil Aviation Safety Authority. Of 14,163 Australian male commercial pilots licensed in 2011, 1286 aged ≥60 had biennial eye examinations showing a cataract prevalence of 11.6%. Among 12,877 pilots aged <60, based on compulsory eye examinations only when first licensed, prevalence was 0.5%. There was no significant difference by ambient ultraviolet (UV) radiation levels in state of residence though lowest prevalence was seen in the low-UV state of Victoria. Most cataract in pilots ≥60 years was bilateral and of mild severity, while cataract in pilots <60 were more likely to be unilateral and of greater severity.

The increasing use of cosmetic non-ionising radiation applications - types of procedures, potential risks to consumers and regulation in Australia.

In recent years, there has been a large increase in cosmetic applications using non-ionising radiation (NIR). These applications use various types of NIR such as lasers and ultrasound for numerous cosmetic outcomes such as epilation, skin rejuvenation and tattoo removal. Cosmetic NIR procedures are marketed as a low-cost and low-risk alternative to more invasive procedures. However, treatments with these devices always result in high NIR exposure to targeted tissue in order to ensure efficacy of treatment. Consequently, there is always a risk of adverse health effects from these procedures, which may be temporary or longer lasting. Research on the health risks of cosmetic NIR applications is lacking, particularly on the extent of poor treatment application or misuse. In Australia, except for the banning of solaria, there is no national regulation for the use of NIR devices for cosmetic purposes and only three states have established regulatory controls for certain optical cosmetic applications. To mitigate the impacts of this gap in oversight, the Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency has published national advice for consumers and service providers that give information on cosmetic NIR treatments and the potential risks involved.

Effectiveness, compliance and application of sunscreen for solar ultraviolet radiation protection in Australia.

Objectives and importance of study: Sunscreens are widely used, not only to prevent acute sunburn, but also for skin cancer prevention and protection against photoaging and other skin conditions related to cumulative solar ultraviolet radiation (UVR) exposure. When correctly applied, sunscreens reduce the amount of UVR reaching the skin and therefore they can reduce harmful effects of such exposures. This paper examines the benefits and risks of sunscreens, compliance requirements and how sunscreen should be used for optimal effectiveness. STUDY TYPE: Narrative review. METHODS: We reviewed evidence relating to the benefits and risks of sunscreens, sunscreen manufacturing compliance, consumer usage of sunscreen and how sunscreen should be used to be most effective. RESULTS: There is strong evidence that sunscreen is safe to use and, when applied correctly, reduces the risk of skin cancer. There is a need to address questions about the impact of sunscreen on vitamin D and its risk to the environment, as well as a need to develop sun protection factor (SPF) sunscreen testing methods that are more reproducible and ethically based. The amount of sunscreen and the way it is applied varies considerably between individuals, and this in turn markedly affects the degree and duration of protection received. Sunscreen should be used in combination with other sun protection measures that include clothing, hats, sunglasses and seeking shade. CONCLUSIONS: Regulation is essential to ensure high-quality, safe and effective sunscreen products are available to the Australian population. There is an important role for governments to put in place skin cancer prevention policies and long-term funding arrangements to build on our successful sunscreen programs so that future generations are afforded the highest level of topical protection against solar UVR.

The effect of long-term radiofrequency exposure on cognition in human observational studies: A protocol for a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: The long term effects of exposure to radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields (EMF) for frequencies from 100 kHz to 300 GHz on cognitive performance are best assessed using observational studies. In recent years, the use of mobile (cell) phones has been the main source of RF EMF exposure to the brain, although other sources of exposure may be significant. Cognitive function includes various mental and psychological abilities, which can be measured in a range of domains, such as learning, memory, reasoning, problem solving, decision making and attention. Although effects on cognitive function may be most evident later in life, in the experimental setting acute and immediate effects can only be studied. Observational studies are needed when effects are observed after months or years following short or long-term exposure. The importance of the effects of exposure on children has also been recently identified. OBJECTIVES: To assess the long-term effects of RF EMF local and whole-body exposure compared to no or a lower level of exposure on indicators of cognition, including complex attention, executive function, learning and memory, perceptual motor ability and social cognition, but excluding cognitive effects caused by neurodegenerative diseases or neurodevelopmental disorders, and to assess if there is evidence of a dose response relationship. STUDY ELIGIBILITY AND CRITERIA: We will include observational studies that have evaluated cognitive effects of RF energy including a comparator group with a different level of exposure. Studies must report at least one validated measure of cognitive function, including global or domain specific measures, or cognitive impairment, with a minimum follow-up of 6 months. Cohort or case-control studies published in the peer review literature in any language are eligible. We will exclude cross-sectional studies and any that only report brain structure or biomarkers. STUDY APPRAISAL AND SYNTHESIS METHOD: We will conduct searches of PubMed, Embase, PsycINFO and the EMF-Portal. At least two authors will independently screen the titles/abstracts of all records, with any conflicts resolved by a third reviewer. Full-text screening will also be conducted independently by two authors with conflicts resolved by consensus. Data will be extracted from the studies included, such as identifiers and characteristics of the study design, exposure and comparator groups, participants, outcomes assessed and results. Risk of bias will be assessed with the Office of Health Assessment and Translation (OHAT) tool. We will conduct a meta-analysis of similar studies with a random effects model in STATA or similar software, if two or more studies are available for a given exposure-outcome combination. Confidence in the body evidence will be judged using GRADE methods as adapted by OHAT for reviews of environmental exposures.

The effect of exposure to radiofrequency fields on cancer risk in the general and working population: A protocol for a systematic review of human observational studies.

BACKGROUND: The World Health Organization (WHO) has an ongoing project to assess potential health effects of exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) in the general and working population. Here we present the protocol for a systematic review of the scientific literature on cancer hazards from exposure to RF-EMF in humans, commissioned by the WHO as part of that project. OBJECTIVE: To assess the quality and strength of the evidence provided by human observational studies for a causal association between exposure to RF-EMF and risk of neoplastic diseases. ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: We will include cohort and case-control studies investigating neoplasia risks in relation to three types of exposure to RF-EMF: near-field, head-localized, exposure from wireless phone use (SR-A); far-field, whole body, environmental exposure from fixed-site transmitters (SR-B); near/far-field occupational exposures from use of handheld transceivers or RF-emitting equipment in the workplace (SR-C). While no restriction on tumour type will be applied, we will focus on selected neoplasms of the central nervous system (brain, meninges, pituitary gland, acoustic nerve) and salivary gland tumours (SR-A); brain tumours and leukaemias (SR-B, SR-C). INFORMATION SOURCES: Eligible studies will be identified through Medline, Embase, and EMF-Portal. RISK-OF-BIAS ASSESSMENT: We will use a tailored version of the OHAT's tool to evaluate the study's internal validity. DATA SYNTHESIS: We will consider separately studies on different tumours, neoplasm-specific risks from different exposure sources, and a given exposure-outcome pair in adults and children. When a quantitative synthesis of findings can be envisaged, the main aims of the meta-analysis will be to assess the strength of association and the shape of the exposure-response relationship; to quantify the degree of heterogeneity across studies; and explore the sources of inconsistency (if any). When a meta-analysis is judged inappropriate, we will perform a narrative synthesis, complemented by a structured tabulation of results and appropriate visual displays. EVIDENCE ASSESSMENT: Confidence in evidence will be assessed in line with the GRADE approach. FUNDING: This project is supported by the World Health Organization. Co-financing was provided by the New Zealand Ministry of Health; the Istituto Superiore di Sanità in its capacity as a WHO Collaborating Centre for Radiation and Health; ARPANSA as a WHO Collaborating Centre for Radiation Protection. REGISTRATION: PROSPERO CRD42021236798.

Comment on Choi et al. Cellular Phone Use and Risk of Tumors: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 8079.

In September 2020, Choi et al. published their paper "Cellular Phone Use and Risk of Tumors: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis" in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health [...].

Mobile phone use and trends in the incidence of cancers of the parotid and other salivary glands.

BACKGROUND: There has been a significant increase in the use of mobile phones over the last three decades and a possible association with head cancers has been suggested, including cancers of the parotic and other salivary glands. We examined the incidence time trends of parotid and other salivary gland cancers in Australia to ascertain the influence of increased mobile phone use. METHODS: Analyses of incidence time trends were carried out using Poisson regression to estimate the annual percentage change (APC) in the incidence of salivary gland cancers of all available national registration data from 1982 to 2016, as well as specific time periods (1982-1993, 1994-2005, 2006-2016) representing changes in the prevalence of mobile phone use. RESULTS: The incidence of parotid gland cancer was stable for the periods 1982-1993 and 1994-2005. During 2006-2016 there was a large decrease in parotid gland cancer for males (APC: -3.71, 95 %CI: -6.66 to -0.67) and a large increase in females (4.80, 1.77-7.91) for adults aged 20-59 years. The incidence for other salivary gland cancers was stable during all the periods. CONCLUSIONS: The results do not indicate that mobile phone use increased the incidence of parotid or other salivary gland cancers. An increase in parotid gland cancer in females since 2006 may be attributed to other possible risk factors specific to this gender.

Meta-analysis of in vitro and in vivo studies of the biological effects of low-level millimetre waves.

BACKGROUND: With the roll-out of new technologies such as 5G, there has been renewed community concern regarding the adequacy of research on possible health effects from associated radiofrequency radiation, mainly in the millimetre wave (MMW) band. OBJECTIVE: We conducted a meta-analysis of in vitro and in vivo studies investigating bioeffects of MMWs at low exposure levels. METHODS: We identified 107 in vitro and in vivo studies investigating MMWs and biological effects in which the power density employed has been below 100 W/m2, which is below the current standards for occupational local exposures. Where possible, we estimated the magnitude of the principal effect reported or set this magnitude to zero in studies reporting no significant effects. We also estimated the quality of the studies, based on a methodology used in previous analyses. RESULTS: We show a negative correlation between effect size and both power density and specific absorption rate. There was also a significant negative correlation between effect size and quality score. A multivariate analysis revealed that there is an increase in the effect size for certain biological systems being investigated and laboratories in which the work was carried out whilst the quality score for some of these tends to be low. We note that many of the studies were motivated by a desire to elucidate the possible mechanisms in therapeutic devices rather than assessing the safety of telecommunications systems. Finally, it appears that the presence or absence of modulation does not influence the reported effect size. SIGNIFICANCE: Many of the findings of this meta-analysis have not been reported before and have important implications for overall interpretation of in vitro and in vivo data. Overall, the results of this study do not confirm an association between low-level MMWs and biological effects.

5G mobile networks and health-a state-of-the-science review of the research into low-level RF fields above 6 GHz.

The increased use of radiofrequency (RF) fields above 6 GHz, particularly for the 5 G mobile phone network, has given rise to public concern about any possible adverse effects to human health. Public exposure to RF fields from 5 G and other sources is below the human exposure limits specified by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). This state-of-the science review examined the research into the biological and health effects of RF fields above 6 GHz at exposure levels below the ICNIRP occupational limits. The review included 107 experimental studies that investigated various bioeffects including genotoxicity, cell proliferation, gene expression, cell signalling, membrane function and other effects. Reported bioeffects were generally not independently replicated and the majority of the studies employed low quality methods of exposure assessment and control. Effects due to heating from high RF energy deposition cannot be excluded from many of the results. The review also included 31 epidemiological studies that investigated exposure to radar, which uses RF fields above 6 GHz similar to 5 G. The epidemiological studies showed little evidence of health effects including cancer at different sites, effects on reproduction and other diseases. This review showed no confirmed evidence that low-level RF fields above 6 GHz such as those used by the 5 G network are hazardous to human health. Future experimental studies should improve the experimental design with particular attention to dosimetry and temperature control. Future epidemiological studies should continue to monitor long-term health effects in the population related to wireless telecommunications.

Radiofrequency Fields and Calcium Movements Into and Out of Cells.

The recent rollout of 5G telecommunications systems has spawned a renewed call to re-examine the possibility of so-called "non-thermal" harmful effects of radiofrequency (RF) radiation. The possibility of calcium being affected by low-level RF has been the subject of research for nearly 50 years and there have been recent suggestions that voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs) are "extraordinarily sensitive" to ambient RF fields. This article examines the feasibility of particularly modulated RF coupling to gating mechanisms in VGCCs and also reviews studies from the literature from the last 50 years for consistency of outcome. We conclude that the currents induced by fields at the ICNIRP guideline limits are many orders of magnitude below those needed to affect gating, and there would need to be a biological mechanism for detection and rectification of the extremely-low-frequency (ELF) modulations, which has not been demonstrated. Overall, experimental studies have not validated that RF affects Ca2+ transport into or out of cells.

Melanoma incidence in Australian commercial pilots, 2011-2016.

OBJECTIVES: Occupational exposure to cosmic and ultraviolet radiation may increase airline pilots' risk of cutaneous melanoma. Meta-analyses of available data show a higher than average incidence of melanoma in airline pilots, but the most recent systematic review revealed that few contemporary data are available. Moreover, all relevant studies have been conducted in Northern Hemisphere populations. We therefore aimed to examine if Australian commercial pilots have a raised incidence of melanoma compared with the general population. METHODS: We examined all melanoma histologically diagnosed among Australian-licensed commercial pilots in the period 2011-2016 by manually reviewing de-identified data in the medical records system of the Australian Civil Aviation Safety Authority. We estimated age-specific incidence rates and compared these with corresponding population rates using standardised incidence ratios (SIRs) as measures of relative risk. Expected numbers were calculated by multiplying age- and calendar period-specific person-years (PYs) with corresponding rates from the entire Australian population; 95% CI were calculated assuming a Poisson distribution of the observed cases. RESULTS: In this cohort of Australian-licensed commercial pilots observed for 91 370 PYs, 114 developed a melanoma (51 invasive, 63 in situ). More than 50% of melanomas occurred on the trunk, and the predominant subtype was superficial spreading melanoma. The SIR for invasive melanoma was 1.20 (95% CI 0.89 to 1.55) and for melanoma in situ, 1.39 (95% CI 1.08 to 1.78). CONCLUSION: Australian-licensed commercial pilots have a modestly raised risk of in situ melanoma but no elevation of invasive melanoma compared with the general population.

Mobile phone use and incidence of brain tumour histological types, grading or anatomical location: a population-based ecological study.

OBJECTIVE: Some studies have reported increasing trends in certain brain tumours and a possible link with mobile phone use has been suggested. We examined the incidence time trends of brain tumour in Australia for three distinct time periods to ascertain the influence of improved diagnostic technologies and increase in mobile phone use on the incidence of brain tumours. DESIGN: In a population-based ecological study, we examined trends of brain tumour over the periods 1982-1992, 1993-2002 and 2003-2013. We further compared the observed incidence during the period of substantial mobile phone use (2003-2013) with predicted (modelled) incidence for the same period by applying various relative risks, latency periods and mobile phone use scenarios. SETTING: National Australian incidence registration data on primary cancers of the brain diagnosed between 1982 and 2013. POPULATION: 16 825 eligible brain cancer cases aged 20-59 from all of Australia (10 083 males and 6742 females). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Annual percentage change (APC) in brain tumour incidence based on Poisson regression analysis. RESULTS: The overall brain tumour rates remained stable during all three periods. There was an increase in glioblastoma during 1993-2002 (APC 2.3, 95% CI 0.8 to 3.7) which was likely due to advances in the use of MRI during that period. There were no increases in any brain tumour types, including glioma (-0.6, -1.4 to 0.2) and glioblastoma (0.8, -0.4 to 2.0), during the period of substantial mobile phone use from 2003 to 2013. During that period, there was also no increase in glioma of the temporal lobe (0.5, -1.3 to 2.3), which is the location most exposed when using a mobile phone. Predicted incidence rates were higher than the observed rates for latency periods up to 15 years. CONCLUSIONS: In Australia, there has been no increase in any brain tumour histological type or glioma location that can be attributed to mobile phones.

Exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields From Wi-Fi in Australian Schools.

The increasing use of Wi-Fi in schools and other places has given rise to public concern that the radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields from Wi-Fi have the potential to adversely affect children. The current study measured typical and peak RF levels from Wi-Fi and other sources in 23 schools in Australia. All of the RF measurements were much lower than the reference levels recommended by international guidelines for protection against established health effects. The typical and peak RF levels from Wi-Fi in locations occupied by children in the classroom were of the order of 10-4 and 10-2% of the exposure guidelines, respectively. Typical RF levels in the classroom were similar between Wi-Fi and radio but higher than other sources. In the schoolyard typical RF levels were higher for radio, TV and mobile phone base stations compared to Wi-Fi. The results of this study showed that the typical RF exposure of children from Wi-Fi at school is very low and comparable or lower to other sources in the environment.

Survey of residential power-frequency magnetic fields in Melbourne, Australia.

Pooled analyses of epidemiological studies have reported an association between prolonged residential exposure to power-frequency magnetic fields of >0.4 µT and an increased risk in childhood leukaemia. In order to compare residential magnetic fields in Australia with those in other countries, a survey was conducted in 296 randomly selected homes in Melbourne. Magnetic fields were assessed by performing spot measurements throughout the house and 24-h measurements in rooms where children spend large amounts of time. Children's exposure in Australia was generally comparable with that in other countries with average fields of 0.05-0.06 µT (95 % CI 0.05-0.06 µT). Prolonged exposure of >0.4 µT was shown in ∼2 % of the homes (95 % CI 0.2-3.6 %) mainly being due to close proximity of the house to transmission lines. Based on the results of this survey, the public health impact of a causal association between residential magnetic fields and childhood leukaemia is expected to be small.