Pharmacological Inhibition of ERK Signaling Rescues Pathophysiology and Behavioral Phenotype Associated with 16p11.2 Chromosomal Deletion in Mice.

The human 16p11.2 microdeletion is one of the most common gene copy number variations linked to autism, but the pathophysiology associated with this chromosomal abnormality is largely unknown. The 593 kb deletion contains the ERK1 gene and other genes that converge onto the ERK/MAP kinase pathway. Perturbations in ERK signaling are linked to a group of related neurodevelopmental disorders hallmarked by intellectual disability, including autism. We report that mice harboring the 16p11.2 deletion exhibit a paradoxical elevation of ERK activity, cortical cytoarchitecture abnormalities and behavioral deficits. Importantly, we show that treatment with a novel ERK pathway inhibitor during a critical period of brain development rescues the molecular, anatomical and behavioral deficits in the 16p11.2 deletion mice. The ERK inhibitor treatment administered to adult mice ameliorates a subset of these behavioral deficits. Our findings provide evidence for potential targeted therapeutic intervention in 16p11.2 deletion carriers.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The ERK/MAPK pathway is genetically linked to autism spectrum disorders and other syndromes typified by intellectual disability. We provide direct evidence connecting the ERK/MAP kinases to the developmental abnormalities in neurogenesis and cortical cytoarchitecture associated with the 16p11.2 chromosomal deletion. Most importantly, we demonstrate that treatment with a novel ERK-specific inhibitor during development rescues aberrant cortical cytoarchitecture and restores normal levels of cell-cycle regulators during cortical neurogenesis. These treatments partially reverse the behavioral deficits observed in the 16p11.2del mouse model, including hyperactivity, memory as well as olfaction, and maternal behavior. We also report a rescue of a subset of these deficits upon treatment of adult 16p11.2del mice. These data provide a strong rationale for therapeutic approaches to this disorder.

The Trem2 R47H variant confers loss-of-function-like phenotypes in Alzheimer's disease.

BACKGROUND: The R47H variant of Triggering Receptor Expressed on Myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) confers greatly increased risk for Alzheimer's disease (AD), reflective of a central role for myeloid cells in neurodegeneration. Understanding how this variant confers AD risk promises to provide important insights into how myeloid cells contribute to AD pathogenesis and progression. METHODS: In order to investigate this mechanism, CRISPR/Cas9 was used to generate a mouse model of AD harboring one copy of the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) encoding the R47H variant in murine Trem2. TREM2 expression, myeloid cell responses to amyloid deposition, plaque burden, and neuritic dystrophy were assessed at 4 months of age. RESULTS: AD mice heterozygous for the Trem2 R47H allele exhibited reduced total Trem2 mRNA expression, reduced TREM2 expression around plaques, and reduced association of myeloid cells with plaques. These results were comparable to AD mice lacking one copy of Trem2. AD mice heterozygous for the Trem2 R47H allele also showed reduced myeloid cell responses to amyloid deposition, including a reduction in proliferation and a reduction in CD45 expression around plaques. Expression of the Trem2 R47H variant also reduced dense core plaque number but increased plaque-associated neuritic dystrophy. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that the AD-associated TREM2 R47H variant increases risk for AD by conferring a loss of TREM2 function and enhancing neuritic dystrophy around plaques.

Omega-3 Fatty Acids Augment the Actions of Nuclear Receptor Agonists in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a highly prevalent disorder for which there are no effective therapies. Accumulation of amyloid ß (Aß) peptides in the brain is associated with impaired cognition and memory, pronounced inflammatory dysregulation, and subsequent amyloid plaque deposition. Thus, drugs that promote the clearance of Aß peptides and resolution of inflammation may represent viable therapeutic approaches. Agonists of nuclear receptors LXR:RXR and PPAR:RXR act to ameliorate AD-related cognitive impairment and amyloid accumulation in murine models of AD. The use of an agonist to the nuclear receptor RXR, bexarotene, as monotherapy against AD, presents potential challenges due to the metabolic perturbations it induces in the periphery, most prominently hypertriglyceridemia. We report that the ω-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), in combination with bexarotene, enhances LXR:RXR target gene expression of Abca1 and ApoE, reduces soluble forms of Aß, and abrogates release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and mediators both in vitro and in a mouse model of AD. Moreover, DHA abrogates bexarotene-induced hypertriglyceridemia in vivo. Importantly, dual therapy promotes reductions in AD pathology and resultant amelioration of cognitive deficits. While monotherapy with either bexarotene or DHA resulted in modest effects in vitro and in vivo, combined treatment with both agents produced a significant additive benefit on associated AD-related phenotypes, suggesting that targeted combinatorial agents may be beneficial over single agents alone in treating AD.

TREM2 deficiency eliminates TREM2+ inflammatory macrophages and ameliorates pathology in Alzheimer's disease mouse models.

Variants in triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) confer high risk for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other neurodegenerative diseases. However, the cell types and mechanisms underlying TREM2's involvement in neurodegeneration remain to be established. Here, we report that TREM2 is up-regulated on myeloid cells surrounding amyloid deposits in AD mouse models and human AD tissue. TREM2 was detected on CD45(hi)Ly6C(+) myeloid cells, but not on P2RY12(+) parenchymal microglia. In AD mice deficient for TREM2, the CD45(hi)Ly6C(+) macrophages are virtually eliminated, resulting in reduced inflammation and ameliorated amyloid and tau pathologies. These data suggest a functionally important role for TREM2(+) macrophages in AD pathogenesis and an unexpected, detrimental role of TREM2 in AD pathology. These findings have direct implications for future development of TREM2-targeted therapeutics.

The 16p11.2 deletion mouse model of autism exhibits altered cortical progenitor proliferation and brain cytoarchitecture linked to the ERK MAPK pathway.

Autism spectrum disorders are complex, highly heritable neurodevelopmental disorders affecting ∼1 in 100 children. Copy number variations of human chromosomal region 16p11.2 are genetically linked to 1% of autism-related disorders. This interval contains the MAPK3 gene, which encodes the MAP kinase, ERK1. Mutations in upstream elements regulating the ERK pathway are genetically linked to autism and other disorders of cognition including the neuro-cardio-facial cutaneous syndromes and copy number variations. We report that a murine model of human 16p11.2 deletion exhibits a reduction in brain size and perturbations in cortical cytoarchitecture. We observed enhanced progenitor proliferation and premature cell cycle exit, which are a consequence of altered levels of downstream ERK effectors cyclin D1 and p27(Kip1) during mid-neurogenesis. The increased progenitor proliferation and cell cycle withdrawal resulted in premature depletion of progenitor pools, altering the number and frequency of neurons ultimately populating cortical lamina. Specifically, we found a reduced number of upper layer pyramidal neurons and an increase in layer VI corticothalamic projection neurons, reflecting the altered cortical progenitor proliferation dynamics in these mice. Importantly, we observed a paradoxical increase in ERK signaling in mid-neurogenesis in the 16p11.2del mice, which is coincident with the development of aberrant cortical cytoarchitecture. The 16p11.2del mice exhibit anxiety-like behaviors and impaired memory. Our findings provide evidence of ERK dysregulation, developmental abnormalities in neurogenesis, and behavioral impairment associated with the 16p11.2 chromosomal deletion.

The PPARγ agonist pioglitazone crosses the blood-brain barrier and reduces tumor growth in a human xenograft model.

PURPOSE: The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ), a member of the nuclear hormone receptor family, represents a target in glioma therapy due to its antineoplastic effects in vitro on human glioma cell lines. We investigate the antineoplastic effects of the PPARγ agonist pioglitazone (pio) in a human glioma xenograft model to define the minimal required dose to induce antineoplastic effects. Additionally, we assess the ability of pio to cross the blood-brain barrier by measuring brain parenchymal concentration after oral administration. METHODS: Human LN-229 cells were injected into the striatum of Balb/cJHanHsd-Prkdc-scid mice. Tumor volumes, invasion, proliferation and parenchymal pio concentrations were measured in this xenograft model after continuous intracerebral drug administration through an osmotic pump or after oral administration. RESULTS: Continuous intracerebral or oral administration of pio reduced tumor volumes, invasion, and proliferation in vivo. To achieve a significant antineoplastic effect, pio needed to be dosed at 240 PPM in the oral group and >1 µM when delivered intracerebrally. After oral pio administration, the drug reached >1 nM levels in brain parenchyma. CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that pioglitazone crosses the blood-brain barrier and has antineoplastic effects in this glioma xenograft model and may be of potential use in treatment of malignant gliomas.

Mechanisms underlying the rapid peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ-mediated amyloid clearance and reversal of cognitive deficits in a murine model of Alzheimer's disease.

Alzheimer's disease is associated with a disruption of amyloid ß (Aß) homeostasis, resulting in the accumulation and subsequent deposition of Aß peptides within the brain. The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPARγ) is a ligand-activated nuclear receptor that acts in a coupled metabolic cycle with Liver X Receptors (LXRs) to increase brain apolipoprotein E (apoE) levels. apoE functions to promote the proteolytic clearance of soluble forms of Aß, and we found that the synthetic PPARγ agonist, pioglitazone, stimulated Aß degradation by both microglia and astrocytes in an LXR and apoE-dependent manner. Remarkably, a brief 9 d oral treatment of APPswe/PS1Δe9 mice with pioglitazone resulted in dramatic reductions in brain levels of soluble and insoluble Aß levels which correlated with the loss of both diffuse and dense-core plaques within the cortex. The removal of preexisting amyloid deposits was associated with the appearance of abundant Aß-laden microglia and astrocytes. Pioglitazone treatment resulted in the phenotypic polarization of microglial cells from a proinflammatory M1 state, into an anti-inflammatory M2 state that was associated with enhanced phagocytosis of deposited forms of amyloid. The reduction in amyloid levels was associated with a reversal of contextual memory deficits in the drug-treated mice. These data provide a mechanistic explanation for how PPARγ activation facilitates amyloid clearance and supports the therapeutic utility of PPARγ agonists for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease.

Disrupted ERK signaling during cortical development leads to abnormal progenitor proliferation, neuronal and network excitability and behavior, modeling human neuro-cardio-facial-cutaneous and related syndromes.

Genetic disorders arising from copy number variations in the ERK (extracellular signal-regulated kinase) MAP (mitogen-activated protein) kinases or mutations in their upstream regulators that result in neuro-cardio-facial-cutaneous syndromes are associated with developmental abnormalities, cognitive deficits, and autism. We developed murine models of these disorders by deleting the ERKs at the beginning of neurogenesis and report disrupted cortical progenitor generation and proliferation, which leads to altered cytoarchitecture of the postnatal brain in a gene-dose-dependent manner. We show that these changes are due to ERK-dependent dysregulation of cyclin D1 and p27(Kip1), resulting in cell cycle elongation, favoring neurogenic over self-renewing divisions. The precocious neurogenesis causes premature progenitor pool depletion, altering the number and distribution of pyramidal neurons. Importantly, loss of ERK2 alters the intrinsic excitability of cortical neurons and contributes to perturbations in global network activity. These changes are associated with elevated anxiety and impaired working and hippocampal-dependent memory in these mice. This study provides a novel mechanistic insight into the basis of cortical malformation which may provide a potential link to cognitive deficits in individuals with altered ERK activity.

ApoE-directed therapeutics rapidly clear ß-amyloid and reverse deficits in AD mouse models.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is associated with impaired clearance of ß-amyloid (Aß) from the brain, a process normally facilitated by apolipoprotein E (apoE). ApoE expression is transcriptionally induced through the action of the nuclear receptors peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma and liver X receptors in coordination with retinoid X receptors (RXRs). Oral administration of the RXR agonist bexarotene to a mouse model of AD resulted in enhanced clearance of soluble Aß within hours in an apoE-dependent manner. Aß plaque area was reduced more than 50% within just 72 hours. Furthermore, bexarotene stimulated the rapid reversal of cognitive, social, and olfactory deficits and improved neural circuit function. Thus, RXR activation stimulates physiological Aß clearance mechanisms, resulting in the rapid reversal of a broad range of Aß-induced deficits.

The ERK2 mitogen-activated protein kinase regulates the timing of oligodendrocyte differentiation.

Oligodendrocyte development is tightly controlled by a variety of extracellular growth and differentiation factors. The mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), ERK1 and ERK2, are critical intracellular signaling molecules important for transducing these extracellular signals. The extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERKs) are ubiquitously expressed, coordinately regulated, and highly similar, but Erk2 deletion in mice is embryonic lethal whereas Erk1 deletion is not. Several studies have suggested that MAPK signaling is important for oligodendrocyte differentiation, although specific roles for the two ERK isoforms have not been investigated. In this study, we deleted Erk2 in the developing mouse cortex from GFAP-expressing radial glia that generate neurons and oligodendrocytes. In vitro analysis revealed that loss of ERK2 resulted in fewer galactocerebroside-expressing mature oligodendrocytes in cortical cultures. In vivo, a delay in the expression of the myelin protein MBP was observed in the corpus callosum at postnatal day 10 (P10). In contrast, Erk1 deletion did not affect oligodendrocyte differentiation. By P21, MBP expression was restored to wild-type levels, demonstrating that the loss of ERK2 results in a delay but not a complete arrest in the appearance of differentiated oligodendrocytes in vivo. Importantly, both the proliferation and total number of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) appeared normal in the Erk2 conditional knock-out cortex, demonstrating that ERK2 plays a specific role in the timing of forebrain myelination but is not critical for the proliferation or survival of OPCs. Oligodendrocyte-specific deletion of Erk2 also resulted in decreased levels of MBP, indicating a cell-autonomous effect of ERK2 in the oligodendrocyte lineage.

Erk1 and Erk2 regulate endothelial cell proliferation and migration during mouse embryonic angiogenesis.

Angiogenesis is a complex process orchestrated by both growth factors and cell adhesion and is initiated by focal degradation of the vascular basement membrane with subsequent migration and proliferation of endothelial cells. The Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK pathway is required for EC function during angiogenesis. Although in vitro studies implicate ERK1 and ERK2 in endothelial cell survival, their precise role in angiogenesis in vivo remains poorly defined. Cre/loxP technology was used to inactivate Erk1 and Erk2 in endothelial cells during murine development, resulting in embryonic lethality due to severely reduced angiogenesis. Deletion of Erk1 and Erk2 in primary endothelial cells resulted in decreased cell proliferation and migration, but not in increased apoptosis. Expression of key cell cycle regulators was diminished in the double knockout cells, and decreased DNA synthesis could be observed in endothelial cells during embryogenesis. Interestingly, both Paxillin and Focal Adhesion Kinase were expressed at lower levels in endothelial cells lacking Erk1 and Erk2 both in vivo and in vitro, leading to defects in the organization of the cytoskeleton and in cell motility. The regulation of Paxillin and Focal Adhesion Kinase expression occurred post-transcriptionally. These results demonstrate that ERK1 and ERK2 coordinate endothelial cell proliferation and migration during angiogenesis.

Mouse and human phenotypes indicate a critical conserved role for ERK2 signaling in neural crest development.

Disrupted ERK1/2 (MAPK3/MAPK1) MAPK signaling has been associated with several developmental syndromes in humans; however, mutations in ERK1 or ERK2 have not been described. We demonstrate haplo-insufficient ERK2 expression in patients with a novel approximately 1 Mb micro-deletion in distal 22q11.2, a region that includes ERK2. These patients exhibit conotruncal and craniofacial anomalies that arise from perturbation of neural crest development and exhibit defects comparable to the DiGeorge syndrome spectrum. Remarkably, these defects are replicated in mice by conditional inactivation of ERK2 in the developing neural crest. Inactivation of upstream elements of the ERK cascade (B-Raf and C-Raf, MEK1 and MEK2) or a downstream effector, the transcription factor serum response factor resulted in analogous developmental defects. Our findings demonstrate that mammalian neural crest development is critically dependent on a RAF/MEK/ERK/serum response factor signaling pathway and suggest that the craniofacial and cardiac outflow tract defects observed in patients with a distal 22q11.2 micro-deletion are explained by deficiencies in neural crest autonomous ERK2 signaling.

Deletion of ERK2 mitogen-activated protein kinase identifies its key roles in cortical neurogenesis and cognitive function.

The mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases ERK1 and ERK2 are critical intracellular signaling intermediates; however, little is known about their isoform-specific functions in vivo. We have examined the role of ERK2 in neural development by conditional inactivation of the murine mapk1/ERK2 gene in neural progenitor cells of the developing cortex. ERK MAP kinase (MAPK) activity in neural progenitor cells is required for neuronal cell fate determination. Loss of ERK2 resulted in a reduction in cortical thickness attributable to impaired proliferation of neural progenitors during the neurogenic period and the generation of fewer neurons. Mutant neural progenitor cells remained in an undifferentiated state until gliogenic stimuli induced their differentiation, resulting in the generation of more astrocytes. The mutant mice displayed profound deficits in associative learning. Importantly, we have identified patients with a 1 Mb microdeletion on chromosome 22q11.2 encompassing the MAPK1/ERK2 gene. These children, who have reduced ERK2 levels, exhibit microcephaly, impaired cognition, and developmental delay. These findings demonstrate an important role for ERK2 in cellular proliferation and differentiation during neural development as well as in cognition and memory formation.

Nerve growth factor stimulates the concentration of TrkA within lipid rafts and extracellular signal-regulated kinase activation through c-Cbl-associated protein.

Nerve growth factor (NGF) acts through its receptor, TrkA, to elicit the neuronal differentiation of PC12 cells through the action of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 (ERK1) and ERK2. Upon NGF binding, TrkA translocates and concentrates in cholesterol-rich membrane microdomains or lipid rafts, facilitating formation of receptor-associated signaling complexes, activation of downstream signaling pathways, and internalization into endosomes. We have investigated the mechanisms responsible for the localization of TrkA within lipid rafts and its ability to activate ERK1 and ERK2. We report that NGF treatment results in the translocation of activated forms of TrkA to lipid rafts, and this localization is important for efficient activation of the ERKs. TrkA is recruited and retained within lipid rafts through its association with flotillin, an intrinsic constituent of these membrane microdomains, via the adapter protein, c-Cbl associated protein (CAP). Mutant forms of CAP that lack protein interaction domains block TrkA localization to lipid rafts and attenuate ERK activation. Importantly, suppression of endogenous CAP expression inhibited NGF-stimulated neurite outgrowth from primary dorsal root ganglion neurons. These data provide a mechanism for the lipid raft localization of TrkA and establish the importance of the CAP adaptor protein for NGF activation of the ERKs and neuronal differentiation.