Sesamin Catechol Glucuronides Exert Anti-inflammatory Effects by Suppressing Interferon ß and Inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase Expression through Deconjugation in Macrophage-like J774.1 Cells.

Sesamin, a representative sesame lignan, has health-promoting activities. Sesamin is converted into catechol derivatives and further into their glucuronides or sulfates in vivo, whereas the biological activities of sesamin metabolites remain unclear. We examined the inhibitory effects of sesamin metabolites on the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced nitric oxide (NO) production in mouse macrophage-like J774.1 cells and found that a monocatechol derivative SC1, (7α,7'α,8α,8'α)-3,4-dihydroxy-3',4'-methylenedioxy-7,9':7',9-diepoxylignane, has a much higher activity than sesamin and other metabolites. The inhibitory effects of SC1 glucuronides were time-dependently enhanced, associated with the intracellular accumulation of SC1 and the methylated form. SC1 glucuronides and SC1 attenuated the expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and upstream interferon-ß (IFN-ß) in the LPS-stimulated macrophages. The inhibitory effects of SC1 glucuronides against NO production were canceled by the ß-glucuronidase inhibitor and enhanced by the catechol-O-methyltransferase inhibitor. Our results suggest that SC1 glucuronides exert the anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the IFN-ß/iNOS signaling through macrophage-mediated deconjugation.

Understanding metabolic conversions and molecular actions of flavonoids in vivo:toward new strategies for effective utilization of natural polyphenols in human health.

Many papers have suggested the health-beneficial activity of natural dietary polyphenols to prevent chronic diseases and aging processes in humans. It is generally recognized that polyphenols are absorbed from the intestines and metabolized into the phase-Ⅱ conjugates, i.e., the glucuronides and sulfates. For example, a major dietary flavonoid, quercetin, abundant in onion and buckwheat, is metabolized after oral intake into its conjugates, such as quercetin-3-O-glucuronide and quercetin-3'-O-sulfate, whereas no aglycone was found in the human plasma. Therefore, to understand the mechanisms of the biological activity of quercetin in vivo, we should focus on the molecular actions of these conjugates. In the last decade, we have demonstrated the unique actions of quercetin-3-O-glucuronide at sites of inflammation, including specific accumulation in macrophages and the following deconjugation into active aglycone, catalyzed by the macrophage-derived ß-glucuronidase. This review summarizes recent findings regarding the anti-inflammatory mechanisms of quercetin conjugates in macrophages and propose a possible strategy for the effective utilization of natural polyphenols in our daily diet for prevention of age-related chronic diseases. J. Med. Invest. 65:162-165, August, 2018.

A Role of Intestinal Alkaline Phosphatase 3 (Akp3) in Inorganic Phosphate Homeostasis.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Hyperphosphatemia is a serious complication of late-stage chronic kidney disease (CKD). Intestinal inorganic phosphate (Pi) handling plays an important role in Pi homeostasis in CKD. We investigated whether intestinal alkaline phosphatase 3 (Akp3), the enzyme that hydrolyzes dietary Pi compounds, is a target for the treatment of hyperphosphatemia in CKD. METHODS: We investigated Pi homeostasis in Akp3 knockout mice (Akp3-/-). We also studied the progression of renal failure in an Akp3-/- mouse adenine treated renal failure model. Plasma, fecal, and urinary Pi and Ca concentration were measured with commercially available kit, and plasma fibroblast growth factor 23, parathyroid hormone, and 1,25(OH)2D3 concentration were measured with ELISA. Brush border membrane vesicles were prepared from mouse intestine using the Ca2+ precipitation method and used for Pi transport activity and alkaline phosphatase activity. In vivo intestinal Pi absorption was measured with oral 32P administration. RESULTS: Akp3-/- mice exhibited reduced intestinal type II sodium-dependent Pi transporter (Npt2b) protein levels and Na-dependent Pi co-transport activity. In addition, plasma active vitamin D levels were significantly increased in Akp3-/- mice compared with wild-type animals. In the adenine-induced renal failure model, Akp3 gene deletion suppressed hyperphosphatemia. CONCLUSION: The present findings indicate that intestinal Akp3 deletion affects Na+-dependent Pi transport in the small intestine. In the adenine-induced renal failure model, Akp3 is predicted to be a factor contributing to suppression of the plasma Pi concentration.

ATP/P2X7 receptor signaling as a potential anti-inflammatory target of natural polyphenols.

Innate immune cells, such as macrophages, respond to pathogen-associated molecular patterns, such as a lipopolysaccharide (LPS), to secrete various inflammatory mediators. Recent studies have suggested that damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), released extracellularly from damaged or immune cells, also play a role in the activation of inflammatory responses. In this study, to prevent excess inflammation, we focused on DAMPs-mediated signaling that promotes LPS-stimulated inflammatory responses, especially adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP)-triggered signaling through the ionotropic purinergic receptor 7 (P2X7R), as a potential new anti-inflammatory target of natural polyphenols. We focused on the phenomenon that ATP accelerates the production of inflammatory mediators, such as nitric oxide, in LPS-stimulated J774.1 mouse macrophages. Using an siRNA-mediated knockdown and specific antagonist, it was found that the ATP-induced enhanced inflammatory responses were mediated through P2X7R. We then screened 42 polyphenols for inhibiting the ATP/P2X7R-induced calcium influx, and found that several polyphenols exhibited significant inhibitory effects. Especially, a flavonoid baicalein significantly inhibited ATP-induced inflammation, including interleukin-1ß secretion, through inhibition of the ATP/P2X7R signaling. These findings suggest that ATP/P2X7R signaling plays an important role in excess inflammatory responses and could be a potential anti-inflammatory target of natural polyphenolic compounds.

Abundance of DNA adducts of 4-oxo-2-alkenals, lipid peroxidation-derived highly reactive genotoxins.

Reactive oxygen species and their reaction products can damage DNA to form mutagenic lesions. Among the reactive species, lipid peroxidation-derived aldehydes react with nucleobases and form bulky exocyclic adducts. Many types of aldehyde-derived DNA adducts have been characterized, identified and detected in vitro and in vivo, whereas relative quantitative and pathophysiological contributions of each adduct still remain unclear. In recent years, an abundant class of DNA adducts derived from 4-oxo-2-alkenals have been identified, in addition to classic aldehyde-derived adducts. The presence of 4-oxo-2-alkenal-derived DNA adducts associated with age-related diseases has been revealed in rodents and humans. In vitro studies have demonstrated that 4-oxo-2-alkenals, as compared with other classes of lipid peroxidation-derived aldehydes, are highly reactive with nucleobases. It has been generally recognized that 4-oxo-2-alkenals are generated through oxidative degradation of the corresponding 4-hydroperoxy-2-alkenals, homolytic degradation products of polyunsaturated fatty acid hydroperoxides. Our recent results have also shown an alternative pathway for the formation of 4-oxo-2-alkenals, in which 2-alkenals could undergo the metal-catalyzed autoxidation resulting in the formation of the corresponding 4-oxo-2-alkenals. This review summarizes the basis of the formation of lipid peroxidation-derived genotoxic aldehydes and their covalent adduction to nucleobases, especially focusing on the abundance of 4-oxo-2-alkenal-derived DNA adducts.

Effects of catechins and caffeine on the development of atherosclerosis in mice.

Atherosclerosis is one of the diseases related to metabolic syndrome which is caused by obesity. Previous reports have shown that green tea and its components have anti-obesity effect. We examined whether catechins and caffeine can prevent the development of atherosclerosis by oral administration, singly or in combination to the atherosclerosis model mice. Results demonstrated that the number of atherosclerotic regions in the aorta was significantly reduced by the combined treatment, and the atherosclerotic area was also improved. Serum HDL-C increased by caffeine single treatment, but no effect on the TG and TC by any treatments. Moreover, ECG illuviated to atheromatous lesions in aorta and the illuviation was enhanced by caffeine. The mRNA expression levels of LOX-1 and TNF-α showed a tendency to suppress by the combined treatment. These results indicated that the combined administration of catechins and caffeine has the inhibitory effect on the development of atherosclerosis in mice.

In vivo absorption and metabolism of leptosperin and methyl syringate, abundantly present in manuka honey.

SCOPE: Manuka honey, which shows strong nonperoxide-dependent antibacterial activity, contains unique components, such as methyl syringate 4-O-ß-D-gentiobioside (leptosperin) and its aglycone, methyl syringate (MSYR). To determine the potential for biological activity evoked by the ingestion of leptosperin and MSYR, we investigated the absorption and metabolism of these components in manuka honey. METHODS AND RESULTS: The incubation of MSYR with liver microsomes or S9 fractions in vitro resulted in the formation of MSYR-glucuronide (MSYR-GA), MSYR-sulfate (MSYR-S), and syringic acid as metabolites. Then, manuka honey (15 g) was fed to healthy human volunteers. MSYR-GA, MSYR-S, and MSYR were detected in both plasma and urine. Within plasma, their levels were highest within 0.5 h to 1 h post-ingestion, and most metabolites disappeared within 3 h. In conjunction with the disappearances, a significant amount of metabolites along with trace leptosperin was excreted in urine within 4 h. To elucidate the detailed metabolisms of leptosperin and MSYR, each compound was separately administered to mice. In each case, MSYR-GA, MSYR-S, and MSYR were detected in both plasma and urine. CONCLUSION: This study shows the major molecular pathway for leptosperin and MSYR metabolism and could facilitate an understanding of biological functions of manuka honey post ingestion.

Metal-catalyzed oxidation of 2-alkenals generates genotoxic 4-oxo-2-alkenals during lipid peroxidation.

Lipid peroxidation products react with cellular molecules, such as DNA bases, to form covalent adducts, which are associated with aging and disease processes. Since lipid peroxidation is a complex process and occurs in multiple stages, there might be yet unknown reaction pathways. Here, we analyzed comprehensively 2'-deoxyguanosine (dG) adducts with oxidized arachidonic acid using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and found the formation of 7-(2-oxo-hexyl)-etheno-dG as one of the major unidentified adducts. The formation of this adduct was reproduced in the reaction of dG with 2-octenal and predominantly with 4-oxo-2-octenal (OOE). We also found that other 2-alkenals (with five or more carbons) generate corresponding 4-oxo-2-alkenal-type adducts. Importantly, it was found that transition metals enhanced the oxidation of C4-position of 2-octenal, leading to the formation of OOE-dG adduct. These findings demonstrated a new pathway for the formation of 4-oxo-2-alkenals during lipid peroxidation and might provide a mechanism for metal-catalyzed genotoxicity.

Effects of dietary phosphate on glucose and lipid metabolism.

Recent epidemiological and animal studies have suggested that excess intake of phosphate (Pi) is a risk factor for the progression of chronic kidney disease and its cardiovascular complications. However, little is known about the impact of dietary high Pi intake on the development of metabolic disorders such as obesity and type 2 diabetes. In this study, we investigated the effects of dietary Pi on glucose and lipid metabolism in healthy rats. Male 8-wk-old Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into three groups and given experimental diets containing varying amounts of Pi, i.e., 0.2 [low Pi(LP)], 0.6 [control Pi(CP)], and 1.2% [high Pi(HP)]. After 4 wk, the HP group showed lower visceral fat accumulation compared with other groups, accompanied by a low respiratory exchange ratio (V̇CO2/V̇O2) without alteration of locomotive activity. The HP group had lower levels of plasma insulin and nonesterified fatty acids. In addition, the HP group also showed suppressed expression of hepatic lipogenic genes, including sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c, fatty acid synthase, and acetyl-CoA carboxylase, whereas there was no difference in hepatic fat oxidation among the groups. On the other hand, uncoupling protein (UCP) 1 and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) expression were significantly increased in the brown adipose tissue (BAT) of the HP group. Our data demonstrated that a high-Pi diet can negatively regulate lipid synthesis in the liver and increase mRNA expression related to lipid oxidation and UCP1 in BAT, thereby preventing visceral fat accumulation. Thus, dietary Pi is a novel metabolic regulator.

ß-Glucuronidase activity and mitochondrial dysfunction: the sites where flavonoid glucuronides act as anti-inflammatory agents.

Epidemiological and experimental studies suggest that the consumption of flavonoid-rich diets decreases the risk of various chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases. Although studies on the bioavailability of flavonoids have been well-characterized, the tissue and cellular localizations underlying their biological mechanisms are largely unknown. The development and application of novel monoclonal antibodies revealed that macrophages could be the major target of dietary flavonoids in vivo. Using macrophage-like cell lines in vitro, we examined the molecular basis of the interaction between the macrophages and flavonoids, especially the glucuronide metabolites. We have found that extracellular ß-glucuronidase secreted from macrophages is essential for the bioactivation of the glucuronide conjugates into the aglycone, and that the enzymatic activity, which requires an acidic pH, is promoted by the increased secretion of lactate in response to the mitochondrial dysfunction. This review describes our recent findings indicating the molecular mechanisms responsible for the anti-inflammatory activity of dietary flavonoids within the inflammation sites. We propose that the extracellular activity of ß-glucuronidase associated with the status of the mitochondrial function in the target cells might be important biomarkers for the specific sites where the glucuronides of dietary flavonoids can act as anti-atherosclerotic and anti-inflammatory agents in vivo.

Specific localization of quercetin-3-O-glucuronide in human brain.

In recent years, many papers have suggested that dietary flavonoids may exert beneficial effects in the brain tissue for the protection of neurons against oxidative stress and inflammation. However, the bioavailability of flavonoids across the blood-brain barrier and the localization in the brain remain controversial. Thus, we examined the localization of quercetin-3-O-glucuronide (Q3GA), a major phase-II metabolite of quercetin, in the human brain tissues with or without cerebral infarction by immunohistochemical staining using anti-Q3GA antibody. A significant immunoreactivity was observed in the epithelial cells of the choroid plexus, which constitute the structural basis of the blood-cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) barrier, and in the foamy macrophages of recent infarcts. The cellular accumulation of Q3GA was also reproduced in vitro in macrophage-like RAW264, microglial MG6, and brain capillary endothelial RBEC1. It is of interest that a common feature of these cell lines is the deconjugation of Q3GA, resulting in the cellular accumulation of non-conjugated quercetin and the methylated forms. We then examined the anti-inflammatory activity of Q3GA and the deconjugated forms in the lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophage cells and revealed that the deconjugated forms (quercetin and a methylated form isorhamnetin), but not Q3GA itself, exhibited inhibitory effects on the inflammatory responses through attenuation of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase pathway. These results suggested that a quercetin glucuronide can pass through the blood-brain barrier, perhaps the CSF barrier, accumulate in specific types of cells, such as macrophages, and act as anti-inflammatory agents in the brain through deconjugation into the bioactive non-conjugated forms.

Mitochondrial dysfunction leads to deconjugation of quercetin glucuronides in inflammatory macrophages.

Dietary flavonoids, such as quercetin, have long been recognized to protect blood vessels from atherogenic inflammation by yet unknown mechanisms. We have previously discovered the specific localization of quercetin-3-O-glucuronide (Q3GA), a phase II metabolite of quercetin, in macrophage cells in the human atherosclerotic lesions, but the biological significance is poorly understood. We have now demonstrated the molecular basis of the interaction between quercetin glucuronides and macrophages, leading to deconjugation of the glucuronides into the active aglycone. In vitro experiments showed that Q3GA was bound to the cell surface proteins of macrophages through anion binding and was readily deconjugated into the aglycone. It is of interest that the macrophage-mediated deconjugation of Q3GA was significantly enhanced upon inflammatory activation by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Zymography and immunoblotting analysis revealed that ß-glucuronidase is the major enzyme responsible for the deglucuronidation, whereas the secretion rate was not affected after LPS treatment. We found that extracellular acidification, which is required for the activity of ß-glucuronidase, was significantly induced upon LPS treatment and was due to the increased lactate secretion associated with mitochondrial dysfunction. In addition, the ß-glucuronidase secretion, which is triggered by intracellular calcium ions, was also induced by mitochondria dysfunction characterized using antimycin-A (a mitochondrial inhibitor) and siRNA-knockdown of Atg7 (an essential gene for autophagy). The deconjugated aglycone, quercetin, acts as an anti-inflammatory agent in the stimulated macrophages by inhibiting the c-Jun N-terminal kinase activation, whereas Q3GA acts only in the presence of extracellular ß-glucuronidase activity. Finally, we demonstrated the deconjugation of quercetin glucuronides including the sulfoglucuronides in vivo in the spleen of mice challenged with LPS. These results showed that mitochondrial dysfunction plays a crucial role in the deconjugation of quercetin glucuronides in macrophages. Collectively, this study contributes to clarifying the mechanism responsible for the anti-inflammatory activity of dietary flavonoids within the inflammation sites.

Non-selective distribution of isomeric cholesterol hydroperoxides to microdomains in cell membranes and activation of matrix metalloproteinase activity in a model of dermal cells.

Cholesterol hydroperoxides (ChOOHs) are included as lipid peroxidation products in the skin exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light irradiation. They may exert physicochemical actions affecting biomembrane rigidity because cholesterol is one of the major components of cell membranes. We investigated the distribution of isomeric ChOOHs in heterogeneous cell membranes with different lipid profiles using mouse fibroblast NIH-3T3 cells as a model of the dermis. Before and after UVA irradiation in the presence of hematoporphyrin, cell membranes were partitioned to microdomains (lipid rafts and caveolae) containing a higher amount of cholesterol and non-microdomains (containing a lower amount of cholesterol) by ultracentrifugation. By a combination of diphenylpyrenylphosphine-thin-layer chromatography blotting analyses and gas chromatography-electron ionization-mass spectrometry/selected ion monitoring analyses, ChOOH isomers were determined as their trimethylsilyloxyl derivatives. Cholesterol 5α-, 7α- and 7ß-hydroperoxide were found as isomeric ChOOHs before irradiation. The amounts of the three ChOOH isomers increased significantly after photoirradiation for 2h. No difference was observed between microdomains and non-microdomains with regard to the ratio of the amounts of isomeric ChOOHs to that of cholesterol, suggesting that these ChOOH isomers were distributed equally in both parts depending on cholesterol content. When cells were treated with a purified mixture of ChOOH isomers, cell membranes incorporated ChOOHs into microdomains as well as non-microdomains evenly. Cellular matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) activity was elevated by treatment with the purified mixture of ChOOH isomers. These results strongly suggest that ChOOHs accumulate in cell membranes irrespective of the heterogeneous microstructure and promote MMP activity if dermal cells are exposed to photodynamic actions.

Multispecificity of immunoglobulin M antibodies raised against advanced glycation end products: involvement of electronegative potential of antigens.

BACKGROUND: Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) can act as neoantigens to trigger immune responses. RESULTS: Natural IgM antibodies against AGEs recognize multiple molecules, including DNA and chemically modified proteins. CONCLUSION: There is a close relationship between the formation of AGEs and innate immune responses. SIGNIFICANCE: Our findings highlight AGEs and related modified proteins as a source of multispecific natural antibodies Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) are a heterogeneous and complex group of compounds that are formed when reducing sugars, such as dehydroascorbic acid, react in a nonenzymatic way with amino acids in proteins and other macromolecules. AGEs are prevalent in the diabetic vasculature and contribute to the development of atherosclerosis. The presence and accumulation of AGEs in many different cell types affect the extracellular and intracellular structure and function. In the present study, we studied the immune response to the dehydroascorbic acid-derived AGEs and provide multiple lines of evidence suggesting that the AGEs could be an endogenous source of innate epitopes recognized by natural IgM antibodies. Prominent IgM titers to the AGEs were detected in the sera of normal mice and were significantly accelerated by the immunization with the AGEs. Patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), a potentially fatal systemic autoimmune disease characterized by the increased production of autoantibodies, showed significantly higher serum levels of the IgM titer against the AGEs than healthy individuals. A progressive increase in the IgM response against the AGEs was also observed in the SLE-prone mice. Strikingly, a subset of monoclonal antibodies, showing a specificity toward the AGEs, prepared from normal mice immunized with the AGEs and from the SLE mice cross-reacted with the double-stranded DNA. Moreover, they also cross-reacted with several other modified proteins, including the acetylated proteins, suggesting that the multiple specificity of the antibodies might be ascribed, at least in part, to the increased electronegative potential of the proteins. These findings suggest that the protein modification by the endogenous carbonyl compounds, generating electronegative proteins, could be a source of multispecific natural antibodies.

Plasma HDL reduces nonesterified fatty acid hydroperoxides originating from oxidized LDL: a mechanism for its antioxidant ability.

The antioxidant property of plasma high-density lipoprotein (HDL) is thought to be involved in potential anti-atherogenic effects but the exact mechanism is not known. We aimed to reveal the contribution of HDL on the elimination of lipid hydroperoxides (LOOH) derived from oxidized low-density lipoprotein (LDL). Oxidized LDL prepared by copper ion-induced oxidation contained nonesterified fatty acid hydroperoxides (FFA-OOH) and lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPtdCho), in addition to cholesteryl ester hydroperoxides (CE-OOH) and phosphatidylcholine hydroperoxides (PtdCho-OOH). A platelet-activating factor-acetylhydrolase (PAF-AH) inhibitor suppressed formation of FFA-OOH and lysoPtdCho in oxidized LDL. Among LOOH species, FFA-OOH was preferentially reduced by incubating oxidized LDL with HDL. HDL exhibited selective FFA-OOH reducing ability if it was mixed with a liposomal solution containing FFA-OOH, CE-OOH and PtdCho-OOH. Two-electron reduction of the hydroperoxy group to the hydroxy group was confirmed by the formation of 13-hydroxyoctadecadienoic acid from 13-hydroperoxyoctadecadienoic acid in HPLC analyses. This reducing effect was also found in apolipoprotein A-1 (apoA-1). FFA-OOH released from PtdCho-OOH due to PAF-AH activity in oxidized LDL undergo two-electron reduction by the reducing ability of apoA1 in HDL. This preferential reduction of FFA-OOH may participate in the mechanism of the antioxidant property of HDL.

Non-specific protein modifications by a phytochemical induce heat shock response for self-defense.

Accumulated evidence shows that some phytochemicals provide beneficial effects for human health. Recently, a number of mechanistic studies have revealed that direct interactions between phytochemicals and functional proteins play significant roles in exhibiting their bioactivities. However, their binding selectivities to biological molecules are considered to be lower due to their small and simple structures. In this study, we found that zerumbone, a bioactive sesquiterpene, binds to numerous proteins with little selectivity. Similar to heat-denatured proteins, zerumbone-modified proteins were recognized by heat shock protein 90, a constitutive molecular chaperone, leading to heat shock factor 1-dependent heat shock protein induction in hepa1c1c7 mouse hepatoma cells. Furthermore, oral administration of this phytochemical up-regulated heat shock protein expressions in the livers of Sprague-Dawley rats. Interestingly, pretreatment with zerumbone conferred a thermoresistant phenotype to hepa1c1c7 cells as well as to the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. It is also important to note that several phytochemicals with higher hydrophobicity or electrophilicity, including phenethyl isothiocyanate and curcumin, markedly induced heat shock proteins, whereas most of the tested nutrients did not. These results suggest that non-specific protein modifications by xenobiotic phytochemicals cause mild proteostress, thereby inducing heat shock response and leading to potentiation of protein quality control systems. We considered these bioactivities to be xenohormesis, an adaptation mechanism against xenobiotic chemical stresses. Heat shock response by phytochemicals may be a fundamental mechanism underlying their various bioactivities.

Quantitative analysis of acrolein-specific adducts generated during lipid peroxidation-modification of proteins in vitro: identification of N(τ)-(3-propanal)histidine as the major adduct.

Acrolein, a ubiquitous pollutant in the environment, is endogenously formed through oxidation reactions and is believed to be involved in cytopathological effects observed during oxidative stress. Acrolein exerts these effects because of its facile reactivity with biological materials, particularly proteins. In the present study, we quantitatively analyzed the acrolein-specific adducts generated during lipid peroxidation-modification of proteins and identified the acrolein adduct most abundantly generated in the in vitro oxidized low-density lipoproteins (LDL). Taking advantage of the fact that the acrolein-lysine adducts, N(ε)-(3-formyl-3,4-dehydropiperidino)lysine (FDP-lysine) and N(ε)-(3-methylpyridinium)lysine (MP-lysine), have stable core structures resistant to the acid hydrolysis condition of proteins, we examined the formation of these adducts in proteins using high performance liquid chromatography with online electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry. However, only MP-lysine was detected as a minor product in the iron/ascorbate-mediated oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the presence of proteins and in the oxidized low-density lipoproteins (LDL). However, using a reductive amination-based pyridylamination method, we analyzed the acrolein-specific adducts with a carbonyl functionality and found that acrolein modification of the protein produced a number of carbonylated amino acids, including an acrolein-histidine adduct. On the basis of the chemical and spectroscopic evidence, this adduct was identified as N(τ)-(3-propanal)histidine. More notably, N(τ)-(3-propanal)histidine appeared to be one of the major adducts generated in the oxidized LDL. These data suggest that acrolein generated during lipid peroxidation may primarily react with histidine residues of proteins to form N(τ)-(3-propanal)histidine.

Monoclonal antibody against protein-bound glutathione: use of glutathione conjugate of acrolein-modified proteins as an immunogen.

Acrolein shows a facile reactivity with the ε-amino group of lysine to form N(ε)-(3-formyl-3,4-dehydropiperidino)lysine (FDP-lysine) as the major product. In addition, FDP-lysine generated in the acrolein-modified protein could function as an electrophile, reacting with thiol compounds, to form an irreversible thioether adduct. In the present study, to establish the utility of this irreversible conjugate, we attempted to use it as an immunogen to raise a monoclonal antibody (mAb), which specifically recognized protein-bound thiol compounds. Using the glutathione (GSH) conjugate of the acrolein-modified protein as an immunogen, we raised the mAb 2C4, which cross-reacted with the GSH conjugate of acrolein-modified proteins. Specificity studies revealed that mAb 2C4 recognized both the GSH conjugate of an acrolein-lysine adduct, FDP-lysine, and oxidized GSH (GSSG). In addition, mAb 2C4 cross-reacted not only with the GSH conjugates of the acrolein-modified protein but also with the GSH-treated, oxidized protein (S-glutathiolated protein), suggesting that the antibody significantly recognized the protein-bound GSH as the epitope. An immunohistochemical analysis of the atherosclerotic lesions from the human aorta showed that immunoreactive materials with mAb 2C4 were indeed present in the macrophage-derived foam cells and migrating smooth muscles. In addition, using mAb 2C4, we analyzed the GSH-treated, oxidized low-density lipoproteins by agarose gel electrophoresis under reducing or nonreducing conditions followed by immunoblot analysis and found that the majority of the GSH was irreversibly incorporated into the proteins. The results of this study not only showed the utility of the antibody raised against the GSH conjugate of the acrolein-modified proteins but also suggested that the irreversible binding of GSH and other redox molecules to the oxidized LDL might represent the process common to the modification of LDL during atherogenesis.

The ferroimmunomodulatory role of ectopic endometriotic stromal cells in ovarian endometriosis.

OBJECTIVE: To understand the role of ectopic endometriotic stromal cells in ovarian endometriosis (OEM) and the associated risks for infertility and carcinogenesis. DESIGN: Analyses of secreted proteins and gene expression using immortalized eutopic/ectopic endometrial(-otic) stromal cells from OEM. SETTING: University. PATIENT(S): Women with and without OEM. INTERVENTION(S): Samples of endometrial(-otic) tissue from women with or without OEM. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Immunohistochemical analysis of oxidative stress in OEM, gene expression profiles, and the identification of secreted proteins by mass spectrometry in immortalized endometrial(-otic) stromal cells. RESULT(S): 4-Hydroxy-2-nonenal-modified proteins and carboxymethyllysine were abundant in the stroma, rather than epithelia, of OEM patients, indicating the presence of oxidative stress. Immortalized ectopic endometriotic stromal cells exhibited high IRP1/IRP2/HIF-1ß expression and contained lower amounts of iron and copper than their eutopic counterparts. Expression profiles, in combination with protein identification, revealed that complement component 3 (C3) and pentraxin-3 (PTX3) are the major proteins secreted from immortalized ectopic endometriotic stromal cells. Complement-3/PTX3 promoted the secretion of various cytokines by THP1 macrophage cells and thus supported M1 differentiation. CONCLUSION(S): Immortalized ectopic endometriotic stromal cells in OEM predominantly secrete C3 and PTX3 and exhibit a differential regulation of iron metabolism.

Atg7 modulates p53 activity to regulate cell cycle and survival during metabolic stress.

Withdrawal of nutrients triggers an exit from the cell division cycle, the induction of autophagy, and eventually the activation of cell death pathways. The relation, if any, among these events is not well characterized. We found that starved mouse embryonic fibroblasts lacking the essential autophagy gene product Atg7 failed to undergo cell cycle arrest. Independent of its E1-like enzymatic activity, Atg7 could bind to the tumor suppressor p53 to regulate the transcription of the gene encoding the cell cycle inhibitor p21(CDKN1A). With prolonged metabolic stress, the absence of Atg7 resulted in augmented DNA damage with increased p53-dependent apoptosis. Inhibition of the DNA damage response by deletion of the protein kinase Chk2 partially rescued postnatal lethality in Atg7(-/-) mice. Thus, when nutrients are limited, Atg7 regulates p53-dependent cell cycle and cell death pathways.