Dramatic Acceleration of the Hopf Cyclization on Gold(111): From Enediynes to Peri-Fused Diindenochrysene Graphene Nanoribbons.

Hopf et al. reported the high-temperature 6π-electrocyclization of cis-hexa-1,3-diene-5-yne to benzene in 1969. Subsequent studies using this cyclization have been limited by its very high reaction barrier. Here, we show that the reaction barrier for two model systems, (E)-1,3,4,6-tetraphenyl-3-hexene-1,5-diyne (1a) and (E)-3,4-bis(4-iodophenyl)-1,6-diphenyl-3-hexene-1,5-diyne (1b), is decreased by nearly half on a Au(111) surface. We have used scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and noncontact atomic force microscopy (nc-AFM) to monitor the Hopf cyclization of enediynes 1a,b on Au(111). Enediyne 1a undergoes two sequential, quantitative Hopf cyclizations, first to naphthalene derivative 2, and finally to chrysene 3. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations reveal that a gold atom from the Au(111) surface is involved in all steps of this reaction and that it is crucial to lowering the reaction barrier. Our findings have important implications for the synthesis of novel graphene nanoribbons. Ullmann-like coupling of enediyne 1b at 20 °C on Au(111), followed by a series of Hopf cyclizations and aromatization reactions at higher temperatures, produces nanoribbons 12 and 13. These results show for the first time that graphene nanoribbons can be synthesized on a Au(111) surface using the Hopf cyclization mechanism.

Intramolecular N-H⋠⋠⋠F Hydrogen Bonding Interaction in a Series of 4-Anilino-5-Fluoroquinazolines: Experimental and Theoretical Characterization of Electronic and Conformational Effects.

The 4-anilino-6,7-ethylenedioxy-5-fluoroquinazoline scaffold is presented as a novel model system for the characterization of the weak NH⋅⋅⋅F hydrogen bonding (HB) interaction. In this scaffold, the aniline NH proton is forced into close proximity with the nearby fluorine (dH,F ∼2.0 Å, ∠∼138°), and a through-space interaction is observed by NMR spectroscopy with couplings (1h JNH,F ) of 19±1 Hz. A combination of experimental (NMR spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography) and theoretical methods (DFT calculations) were used for the characterization of this weak interaction. In particular, the effects of conformational rigidity and steric compression on coupling were investigated. This scaffold was used for the direct comparison of fluoride with methoxy as HB acceptors, and the susceptibility of the NH⋅⋅⋅F interaction to changes in electron distribution and resonance was probed by preparing a series of molecules with different electron-donating or -withdrawing groups in the positions para to the NH and F. The results support the idea that fluorine can act as a weak HB acceptor, and the HB strength can be modulated through additive and linear electronic substituent effects.

Taming Radical Pairs in the Crystalline Solid State: Discovery and Total Synthesis of Psychotriadine.

Solid-state photodecarbonylation is an attractive but underutilized methodology to forge hindered C-C bonds in complex molecules. This study discloses the use of this reaction to assemble the vicinal quaternary stereocenter motif present in bis(cyclotryptamine) alkaloids. Our strategy was enabled by experimental and computational investigations of the role of substrate conformation on the success or failure of the solid-state photodecarbonylation reaction. This informed a crystal engineering strategy to optimize the key step of the total synthesis. Ultimately, this endeavor culminated in the successful synthesis of the bis(cyclotryptamine) alkaloid "psychotriadine," which features the elusive piperidinoindoline framework. Psychotriadine, a previously unknown compound, was identified in the extracts of the flower Psychotria colorata, suggesting it is a naturally occurring metabolite.

Throwing in a Monkey Wrench to Test and Determine Geared Motion in the Dynamics of a Crystalline One-Dimensional (1D) Columnar Rotor Array.

Crystals of molecular rotor 1 with a central 1,4-phenylene rotator linked to two molecules of the steroid mestranol were prepared with 1%, 5%, 20%, and up to 40% of the analogous 2, which contains a larger 2,3-difluorophenylene rotator and effectively acts as a monkey wrench that affects the rotation of the host. The packing motif of the desired P32 crystal form consists of 1D columns of nested rotors arranged in helical arrays with the central aromatic rotators disordered over two sites related by 85° rotation about their 1,4-axes. Rotational dynamics measured by quadrupolar echo 2H NMR line shape analysis were analyzed in terms of a process model that involves degenerate 180° jumps in the fast exchange regime combined with a highly correlated and entropically demanding jump of 85° between the two dynamically disordered sites. While the enthalpic and entropic barriers for the 180° jump estimated from 2H T1 measurements were Δ H⧧ = 2.7 ± 0.1 kcal mol-1 and Δ S⧧ = -5.0 ± 0.5 cal mol-1 K-1, respectively, the corresponding parameters for the slower 85° jumps, determined by line shape analysis, were Δ H⧧ = 2.2 kcal mol-1 and Δ S⧧ = -23 cal mol-1 K-1. Increasing amounts of the larger molecular rotor 2 in the solid solution results in significant dynamic perturbations as the guest, acting as a monkey wrench, reaches values of one out of every five molecular rotors in the chain.

Tuning the electrochemical potential of perfunctionalized dodecaborate clusters through vertex differentiation.

We report a new class of redox-active vertex-differentiated dodecaborate clusters featuring pentafluoroaryl groups. These [B12(OR)11NO2] clusters share several unique photophysical properties with their [B12(OR)12] analogues, while exhibiting significantly higher (+0.5 V) redox potentials. This work describes the synthesis, characterization, and isolation of [B12(O-CH2C6F5)11NO2] clusters in all 3 oxidation states (dianion, radical, and neutral). Reactivity to post-functionalization with thiol species via SNAr on the pentafluoroaryl groups is also demonstrated.

Synthesis of N = 8 Armchair Graphene Nanoribbons from Four Distinct Polydiacetylenes.

We demonstrate a highly efficient thermal conversion of four differently substituted polydiacetylenes (PDAs 1 and 2a-c) into virtually indistinguishable N = 8 armchair graphene nanoribbons ([8]AGNR). PDAs 1 and 2a-c are themselves easily accessed through photochemically initiated topochemical polymerization of diynes 3 and 4a-c in the crystal. The clean, quantitative transformation of PDAs 1 and 2a-c into [8]AGNR occurs via a series of Hopf pericyclic reactions, followed by aromatization reactions of the annulated polycyclic aromatic intermediates, as well as homolytic bond fragmentation of the edge functional groups upon heating up to 600 °C under an inert atmosphere. We characterize the different steps of both processes using complementary spectroscopic techniques (CP/MAS 13C NMR, Raman, FT-IR, and XPS) and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM). This novel approach to GNRs exploits the power of crystal engineering and solid-state reactions by targeting very large organic structures through programmed chemical transformations. It also affords the first reported [8]AGNR, which can now be synthesized on a large scale via two operationally simple and discrete solid-state processes.

Rotational Dynamics of Diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane in Isomorphous Halogen-Bonded Co-crystals: Entropic and Enthalpic Effects.

Based on rotational dynamics measurements carried out with isomorphic co-crystals formed by halogen-bonding (XB) between tritylacetylene halides (TrX) and diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane (dabco), we were able to distinguish the sources of the enthalpic and entropic components in the rotational free energy barrier. We describe the formation of the 1:1 co-crystals (TrX···N(R)3N) obtained from 1 equiv of dabco and 1 equiv of either TrI or TrBr, respectively, to give 4a and 4b instead of the potential 2:1 complexes. The co-crystals were prepared by solvent evaporation and mechanochemical synthesis. No co-crystal with TrCl was obtained, reflecting the weaker nature of the TrCl···NR3 interaction. Single-crystal X-ray diffraction confirmed structures that resemble a spinning top on a tripod and revealed that the two XB co-crystals are isomorphous, with slightly different C-X···NR3 (X = I, Br) distances and packing interactions. Quadrupolar-echo 2H NMR experiments with 2H-labeled samples showed that fast rotation of dabco in these co-crystals follows a six-fold potential energy surface with three lowest energy minima. Variable-temperature 1H NMR spin-lattice relaxation (VT 1H T1) data revealed rotational dynamics with indistinguishable pre-exponential factors and small but distinguishable activation energies. The activation energy of 4b (Ea = 0.71 kcal mol-1) is the lowest reported in the field of amphidynamic crystals. Using the Eyring equation, we established that their activation entropy for rotation is small but negative (ΔS⧧ = -3.0 cal mol-1 K-1), while there is almost a 2-fold difference in activation enthalpies, with 4a having a higher barrier (ΔH⧧ = 0.95 kcal mol-1) than 4b (ΔH⧧ = 0.54 kcal mol-1). Analysis of the rotator cavity in the two co-crystals revealed subtle differences in steric interactions that account for their different activation energies.

Rapid Synthesis of Redox-Active Dodecaborane B12(OR)12 Clusters Under Ambient Conditions.

We have developed a fast and efficient route to obtain perfunctionalized ether-linked alkyl and benzyl derivatives of the closo-[B12(OH)12]2- icosahedral dodecaborate cluster via microwave-assisted synthesis. These icosahedral boron clusters exhibit three-dimensional delocalization of the cage-bonding electrons, tunable photophysical properties, and a high degree of stability in air in both solid and solution states. A series of closo-[B12(OR)12]2-, hypocloso-[B12(OR)12]1- and hypercloso-[B12(OR)12]0 clusters have been prepared with reaction times ranging from hours to several minutes. This method is superior to previously reported protocols since it dramatically decreases the reaction times required and eliminates the need for inert atmosphere conditions. The generality of the new microwave-based method has been further demonstrated through the synthesis of several new derivatives, which feature redox potentials up to 0.6 V more positive than previously known B12(OR)12 cluster compounds. We further show how this method can be applied to a one-pot synthesis of hybrid, vertex-differentiated species B12(OR)11(OR) that was formerly accessible only via multi-step reaction sequence.

Diffusion-Controlled Rotation of Triptycene in a Metal-Organic Framework (MOF) Sheds Light on the Viscosity of MOF-Confined Solvent.

Artificial molecular machines are expected to operate under conditions of very low Reynolds numbers with inertial forces orders of magnitude smaller than viscous forces. While these conditions are relatively well understood in bulk fluids, opportunities to assess the role of viscous forces in confined crystalline media are rare. Here we report one such example of diffusion-controlled rotation in crystals and its application as a probe for viscosity of MOF-confined solvent. We describe the preparation and characterization of three pillared paddlewheel MOFs, with 9,10-bis(4-pyridylethynyl)triptycene 3 as a pillar and molecular rotator, and three axially substituted dicarboxylate linkers with different lengths and steric bulk. The noncatenated structure with a bulky dicarboxylate linker (UCLA-R3) features a cavity filled by 10 molecules of N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF). Solid-state 2H NMR analysis performed between 293 and 343 K revealed a fast 3-fold rotation of the pillar triptycene group with the temperature dependence consistent with a site exchange process determined by rotator-solvent interactions. The dynamic viscosity of the MOF-confined solvent was estimated to be 13.3 N·s/m2 (or Pa·s), which is 4 orders of magnitude greater than that of bulk DMF (8.2 × 10-4 N·s/m2), and comparable to that of honey.

Visible-Light-Induced Olefin Activation Using 3D Aromatic Boron-Rich Cluster Photooxidants.

We report a discovery that perfunctionalized icosahedral dodecaborate clusters of the type B12(OCH2Ar)12 (Ar = Ph or C6F5) can undergo photo-excitation with visible light, leading to a new class of metal-free photooxidants. Excitation in these species occurs as a result of the charge transfer between low-lying orbitals located on the benzyl substituents and an unoccupied orbital delocalized throughout the boron cluster core. Here we show how these species, photo-excited with a benchtop blue LED source, can exhibit excited-state reduction potentials as high as 3 V and can participate in electron-transfer processes with a broad range of styrene monomers, initiating their polymerization. Initiation is observed in cases of both electron-rich and electron-deficient styrene monomers at cluster loadings as low as 0.005 mol%. Furthermore, photo-excitation of B12(OCH2C6F5)12 in the presence of a less activated olefin such as isobutylene results in the production of highly branched poly(isobutylene). This work introduces a new class of air-stable, metal-free photo-redox reagents capable of mediating chemical transformations.

Directing the Crystallization of Dehydro[24]annulenes into Supramolecular Nanotubular Scaffolds.

The self-assembly of a series of dehydro[24]annulene derivatives into columnar stacks has been examined for its latent ability to form π-conjugated carbon-rich nanotubular structures through topochemical polymerizations. We have studied the parameters affecting self-assembly, including the nature of the substituent and crystallization conditions, using 10 different dehydro[24]annulene derivatives. In particular, hydrogen-bonding interactions through carbamate groups were found to be especially useful at directing the formation of nanotubular supramolecular assemblies. We have also evaluated the electronic coupling between neighboring dehydroannulene molecules within these supramolecular assemblies. Density functional calculations on the stacked supramolecular nanotube assemblies show that transfer integrals vary considerably between the three columnar assemblies, ranging from moderate to high (59-98 meV for the highest occupied molecular orbitals, 63-97 meV for the lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals), depending on the local molecular topology. In addition, the dehydro[24]annulene derivatives afforded distinct architectures in the crystal, including nanochannel arrays, sheets with solvent-filled pores, and lamellae. This work is an essential step toward a controlled formation of covalently linked carbon-rich nanostructures generated from molecular precursors with a latent diacetylene reactivity.

Forging Unsupported Metal-Boryl Bonds with Icosahedral Carboranes.

In contrast to the plethora of metal-catalyzed cross-coupling methods available for the installation of functional groups on aromatic hydrocarbons, a comparable variety of methods are currently not available for icosahedral carboranes, which are boron-rich three-dimensional aromatic analogues of aryl groups. Part of this is due to the limited understanding of the elementary steps for cross-coupling involving carboranes. Here, we report our efforts in isolating metal-boryl complexes to further our understanding of one of these elementary steps, oxidative addition. Structurally characterized examples of group 10 M-B bonds featuring icosahedral carboranes are completely unknown. Use of mercurocarboranes as a reagent to deliver M-B bonds saw divergent reactivity for platinum and palladium, with a Pt-B bond being isolated for the former, and a rare Pd-Hg bond being formed for the latter.

Structure-Kinetics Correlations in Isostructural Crystals of α-(ortho-Tolyl)-acetophenones: Pinning Down Electronic Effects Using Laser-Flash Photolysis in the Solid State.

Aqueous suspensions of nanocrystals in the 200-500 nm size range of isostructural α-(ortho-tolyl)-acetophenone (1a) and α-(ortho-tolyl)-para-methylacetophenone (1b) displayed good absorption characteristics for flash photolysis experiments in a flow system, with transient spectra and decay kinetics with a quality that is similar to that recorded in solution. In contrast to solution measurements, reactions in the solid state were characterized by a rate limiting hydrogen transfer reaction from the triplet excited state and a very short-lived biradical intermediate, which does not accumulate. Notably, the rate for δ-hydrogen atom transfer of 1a (2.7 × 10(7) s(-1)) in the crystalline phase is 18-fold larger than that of 1b (1.5 × 10(6) s(-1)). With nearly identical molecular and crystal structures, this decrease in the rate of δ-hydrogen abstraction can be assigned unambiguously to an electronic effect by the para-methyl group in 1b, which increases the contribution of the (3)π,π* configuration relative to the reactive (3)n,π* configuration in the lowest triplet excited state. These results highlight the potential of relating single crystal X-ray structural data with absolute kinetics from laser flash photolysis.

Luminescent Metal Complexes Featuring Photophysically Innocent Boron Cluster Ligands.

We report the synthesis and characterization of a series of d8 metal complexes featuring robust and photophysically innocent strong-field chelating 1,1'-bis(o-carborane) (bc) ligand frameworks. A combination of UV-Vis spectroscopy, single crystal X-ray structural analysis, and DFT calculations of these species suggest that the dianionic bc ligand does not contribute to any visible metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT) transitions, yet it provides a strong ligand field in these complexes. Furthermore, a bc-based Pt(II) complex containing a 4,4'-di-tert-butyl-2,2'-bipyridine ligand (dtb-bpy) has been prepared and was found to display blue phosphorescent emission dominated by MLCT from the Pt(II) center to the dtb-bpy ligand. Importantly, the bulky three-dimensional nature of the bc ligand precludes intermolecular Pt(II)⋯Pt(II) interactions in the solid state where the resulting compounds retain their emission properties. This study opens a potentially new avenue for designing organic light-emitting diode (OLED) materials with tunable properties featuring photophysically innocent boron-rich cluster ligands.

Tetraanionic biphenyl lanthanide complexes as single-molecule magnets.

Inverse sandwich biphenyl complexes [(NN(TBS))Ln]2(µ-biphenyl)[K(solvent)]2 [NN(TBS) = 1,1'-fc(NSi(t)BuMe2)2; Ln = Gd, Dy, Er; solvent = Et2O, toluene; 18-crown-6], containing a quadruply reduced biphenyl ligand, were synthesized and their magnetic properties measured. One of the dysprosium biphenyl complexes was found to exhibit antiferromagnetic coupling and single-molecule-magnet behavior with Ueff of 34 K under zero applied field. The solvent coordinated to potassium affected drastically the nature of the magnetic interaction, with the other dysprosium complex showing ferromagnetic coupling. Ab initio calculations were performed to understand the nature of magnetic coupling between the two lanthanide ions bridged by the anionic arene ligand and the origin of single-molecule-magnet behavior.

Bimetallic cleavage of aromatic C-H bonds by rare-earth-metal complexes.

A new type of C-H bond activation mediated by rare-earth metals under reducing conditions is reported. The synergy between reductants and rare-earth-metal complexes allows the cleavage of unactivated aromatic C-H bonds. The reaction between rare-earth-metal iodides supported by a 1,1'-ferrocenediamide ligand and potassium graphite in benzene leads to the formation of a 1:1 metal molar ratio of the corresponding metal hydride and metal phenyl complex. A proposed mechanism involving an inverse sandwich arene bimetallic intermediate is supported by experimental and computational studies.

Redox control of group 4 metal ring-opening polymerization activity toward L-lactide and ε-caprolactone.

The activity of several group 4 metal alkoxide complexes supported by ferrocene-based ligands was controlled using redox reagents during the ring-opening polymerization of l-lactide and ε-caprolactone. Switching in situ between the oxidized and reduced forms of a metal complex resulted in a change in the corresponding rate of polymerization. Opposite behavior was observed for each monomer used. One-pot copolymerization of the two monomers to give block copolymers was also achieved.

Group 3 metal stilbene complexes: synthesis, reactivity, and electronic structure studies.

Group 3 metal (E)-stilbene complexes supported by a ferrocene diamide ligand were synthesized and characterized. Reactivity studies showed that they behave similar to analogous naphthalene complexes. Experimental and computational results indicated that the double bond was reduced and not a phenyl ring, in contrast to a previously reported uranium (E)-stilbene complex.

A six-carbon 10π-electron aromatic system supported by group 3 metals.

Aromaticity is a fundamental concept with implications spanning all the chemical sciences. Hückel's (4n+2)π-electron rule is the standard criterion to determine aromaticity and it applies well to neutral arenes as well as to charged species such as the cyclopentadienyl anion, the cyclooctatetraene dianion and the cycloheptatrienyl cation (tropylium). In the series of all-carbon aromatic compounds, no example of a benzene tetraanion, which is theoretically a 6C, 10π-electron aromatic system, has been reported although heteroatom analogues of such a system, known as 'electron-rich aromatics', have been studied in detail for a long time. Here we present the isolation of the first tetraanionic-substituted benzene as a ligand coordinated to group 3 metals. The nature of the substituted benzene tetraanion and the aromaticity of the 6C, 10π-electron system were established by X-ray crystallographic studies, multi-nuclei nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, X-ray absorption spectroscopy and density functional theory calculations.

Crystal-packing trends for a series of 6,9,12,15,18-pentaaryl-1-hydro[60]fullerenes.

The relationship between the size of the substituents of aryl groups in a series of fifteen 6,9,12,15,18-pentaaryl-1-hydro[60]fullerenes and the solid-state structures and packing motifs of these compounds has been analyzed. Pentaarylfullerenes have a characteristic "badminton shuttlecock" shape that causes several derivatives to crystallize into columnar stacks. However, many pentaarylfullerenes form non-stacked structures with, for example, dimeric, layered, diamondoid, or feather-in-cavity relationships between molecules. Computational modeling gave a qualitative estimate of the best shape match between the ball and socket surfaces of each pentaarylfullerene. The best match was for pentaarylfullerenes with large, spherically shaped para-substituents on the aryl groups. The series of pentaarylfullerenes was characterized by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. A total of 34 crystal structures were obtained as various solvates and were categorized by their packing motifs.