Molecular basis of anaphylatoxin binding, activation, and signaling bias at complement receptors.

The complement system is a critical part of our innate immune response, and the terminal products of this cascade, anaphylatoxins C3a and C5a, exert their physiological and pathophysiological responses primarily via two GPCRs, C3aR and C5aR1. However, the molecular mechanism of ligand recognition, activation, and signaling bias of these receptors remains mostly elusive. Here, we present nine cryo-EM structures of C3aR and C5aR1 activated by their natural and synthetic agonists, which reveal distinct binding pocket topologies of complement anaphylatoxins and provide key insights into receptor activation and transducer coupling. We also uncover the structural basis of a naturally occurring mechanism to dampen the inflammatory response of C5a via proteolytic cleavage of the terminal arginine and the G-protein signaling bias elicited by a peptide agonist of C3aR identified here. In summary, our study elucidates the innerworkings of the complement anaphylatoxin receptors and should facilitate structure-guided drug discovery to target these receptors in a spectrum of disorders.

Zernike phase-contrast electron cryotomography applied to marine cyanobacteria infected with cyanophages.

Advances in electron cryotomography have provided new opportunities to visualize the internal 3D structures of a bacterium. An electron microscope equipped with Zernike phase-contrast optics produces images with markedly increased contrast compared with images obtained by conventional electron microscopy. Here we describe a protocol to apply Zernike phase plate technology for acquiring electron tomographic tilt series of cyanophage-infected cyanobacterial cells embedded in ice, without staining or chemical fixation. We detail the procedures for aligning and assessing phase plates for data collection, and methods for obtaining 3D structures of cyanophage assembly intermediates in the host by subtomogram alignment, classification and averaging. Acquiring three or four tomographic tilt series takes ∼12 h on a JEM2200FS electron microscope. We expect this time requirement to decrease substantially as the technique matures. The time required for annotation and subtomogram averaging varies widely depending on the project goals and data volume.

Visualizing virus assembly intermediates inside marine cyanobacteria.

Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic organisms responsible for ∼25% of organic carbon fixation on the Earth. These bacteria began to convert solar energy and carbon dioxide into bioenergy and oxygen more than two billion years ago. Cyanophages, which infect these bacteria, have an important role in regulating the marine ecosystem by controlling cyanobacteria community organization and mediating lateral gene transfer. Here we visualize the maturation process of cyanophage Syn5 inside its host cell, Synechococcus, using Zernike phase contrast electron cryo-tomography (cryoET). This imaging modality yields dramatic enhancement of image contrast over conventional cryoET and thus facilitates the direct identification of subcellular components, including thylakoid membranes, carboxysomes and polyribosomes, as well as phages, inside the congested cytosol of the infected cell. By correlating the structural features and relative abundance of viral progeny within cells at different stages of infection, we identify distinct Syn5 assembly intermediates. Our results indicate that the procapsid releases scaffolding proteins and expands its volume at an early stage of genome packaging. Later in the assembly process, we detected full particles with a tail either with or without an additional horn. The morphogenetic pathway we describe here is highly conserved and was probably established long before that of double-stranded DNA viruses infecting more complex organisms.

Filamentous, mixed micelles of triblock copolymers enhance tumor localization of indocyanine green in a murine xenograft model.

Polymeric micelles formed by the self-assembly of amphiphilic block copolymers can be used to encapsulate hydrophobic drugs for tumor-delivery applications. Filamentous carriers with high aspect ratios offer potential advantages over spherical carriers, including prolonged circulation times. In this work, mixed micelles composed of poly(ethylene oxide)-poly[(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate]-poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO-PHB-PEO) and Pluronic F-127 (PF-127) were used to encapsulate a near-infrared fluorophore. The micelle formulations were assessed for tumor accumulation after tail vein injection to xenograft tumor-bearing mice by noninvasive optical imaging. The mixed micelle formulation that facilitated the highest tumor accumulation was shown by cryo-electron microscopy to be filamentous in structure compared to spherical structures of pure PF-127 micelles. In addition, increased dye loading efficiency and dye stability were attained in this mixed micelle formulation compared to pure PEO-PHB-PEO micelles. Therefore, the optimized PEO-PHB-PEO/PF-127 mixed micelle formulation offers advantages for cancer delivery over micelles formed from the individual copolymer components.

Structure of Trypanosoma brucei flagellum accounts for its bihelical motion.

Trypanosoma brucei is a parasitic protozoan that causes African sleeping sickness. It contains a flagellum required for locomotion and viability. In addition to a microtubular axoneme, the flagellum contains a crystalline paraflagellar rod (PFR) and connecting proteins. We show here, by cryoelectron tomography, the structure of the flagellum in three bending states. The PFR lattice in straight flagella repeats every 56 nm along the length of the axoneme, matching the spacing of the connecting proteins. During flagellar bending, the PFR crystallographic unit cell lengths remain constant while the interaxial angles vary, similar to a jackscrew. The axoneme drives the expansion and compression of the PFR lattice. We propose that the PFR modifies the in-plane axoneme motion to produce the characteristic trypanosome bihelical motility as captured by high-speed light microscope videography.

Effect of the peptide secondary structure on the peptide amphiphile supramolecular structure and interactions.

Bottom-up fabrication of self-assembled nanomaterials requires control over forces and interactions between building blocks. We report here on the formation and architecture of supramolecular structures constructed from two different peptide amphiphiles. Inclusion of four alanines between a 16-mer peptide and a 16 carbon long aliphatic tail resulted in a secondary structure shift of the peptide headgroups from α helices to ß sheets. A concomitant shift in self-assembled morphology from nanoribbons to core-shell worm-like micelles was observed by cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). In the presence of divalent magnesium ions, these a priori formed supramolecular structures interacted in distinct manners, highlighting the importance of peptide amphiphile design in self-assembly.

Partially polymerized liposomes: stable against leakage yet capable of instantaneous release for remote controlled drug delivery.

A critical issue for current liposomal carriers in clinical applications is their leakage of the encapsulated drugs that are cytotoxic to non-target tissues. We have developed partially polymerized liposomes composed of polydiacetylene lipids and saturated lipids. Cross-linking of the diacetylene lipids prevents the drug leakage even at 40 °C for days. These inactivated drug carriers are non-cytotoxic. Significantly, more than 70% of the encapsulated drug can be instantaneously released by a laser that matches the plasmon resonance of the tethered gold nanoparticles on the liposomes, and the therapeutic effect was observed in cancer cells. The remote activation feature of this novel drug delivery system allows for precise temporal and spatial control of drug release.

Chapter 14 - Synthesis, characterization, and optical response of gold nanoshells used to trigger release from liposomes.

Liposomes show great promise as intravenous drug delivery vehicles, but it is often difficult to combine stability in the circulation with rapid, targeted release at the site of interest. Targeting to specific tissues requires developing highly specific ligands with strong affinities to receptors overexpressed on diseased cells; a new cellular target requires developing new ligands and identifying new receptors. Novel photoactivated, hollow, gold nanoshell (HGN)/liposome composites provide a new approach to both controlled release and specific targeting. HGN are extremely efficient near infrared (NIR) light absorbers, and are not susceptible to photobleaching like conventional dyes. Near-complete liposome contents release can be initiated within seconds by irradiating HGNs with an NIR pulsed laser. Targeting the drug is limited only by the dimensions of the laser beam; no specific ligands or antibodies are required, so different tissues and cells can be targeted with the same HGN/liposomes. HGNs can be encapsulated within liposomes or tethered to the outer surface of liposomes for the most efficient drug release. HGNs in liposome solutions can also trigger release, but with lower efficiency. Drug release is induced by adsorbing femto- to nanosecond NIR light pulses that cause the HGNs to rapidly increase in temperature. The resulting large temperature gradients lead to the formation of vapor microbubbles in aqueous solutions, similar to the cavitation bubbles induced by sonication. The collapse of the unstable vapor bubbles causes liposome-membrane rupture and contents release, with minimal damage to the surroundings, and little overall heating of the solution.

Remotely triggered liposome release by near-infrared light absorption via hollow gold nanoshells.

An elusive goal for systemic drug delivery is to provide both spatial and temporal control of drug release. Liposomes have been evaluated as drug delivery vehicles for decades, but their clinical significance has been limited by slow release or poor availability of the encapsulated drug. Here we show that near-complete liposome release can be initiated within seconds by irradiating hollow gold nanoshells (HGNs) with a near-infrared (NIR) pulsed laser. Our findings reveal that different coupling methods such as having the HGNs tethered to, encapsulated within, or suspended freely outside the liposomes, all triggered liposome release but with different levels of efficiency. For the underlying content release mechanism, our experiments suggest that the microbubble formation and collapse due to the rapid temperature increase of the HGN is responsible for liposome disruption, as evidenced by the formation of solid gold particles after the NIR irradiation and the coincidence of a laser power threshold for both triggered release and pressure fluctuations in the solution associated with cavitation. These effects are similar to those induced by ultrasound and our approach is conceptually analogous to the use of optically triggered nano-"sonicators" deep inside the body for drug delivery. We expect HGNs can be coupled with any nanocarriers to promote spatially and temporally controlled drug release. In addition, the capability of external HGNs to permeabilize lipid membranes can facilitate the cellular uptake of macromolecules including proteins and DNA and allow for promising applications in gene therapy.

Structure of Halothiobacillus neapolitanus carboxysomes by cryo-electron tomography.

Carboxysomes are polyhedral bodies consisting of a proteinaceous shell filled with ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO). They are found in the cytoplasm of all cyanobacteria and some chemoautotrophic bacteria. Previous studies of Halothiobacillus neapolitanus and Nitrobacter agilis carboxysomes suggest that the structures are either icosahedral or dodecahedral. To determine the protein shell structure more definitively, purified H. neapolitanus carboxysomes were re-examined by cryo-electron tomography and scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM). Due to the limited tilt angles in the electron microscope, the tomographic reconstructions are distorted. Corrections were made in the 3D orientation searching and averaging of the computationally extracted carboxysomes to minimize the missing data effects. It was found that H. neapolitanus carboxysomes vary widely in size and mass as shown by cryo-electron tomography and STEM mass measurements, respectively. We have aligned and averaged carboxysomes in several size classes from the 3D tomographic reconstruction by methods that are not model-biased. The averages reveal icosahedral symmetry of the shell, but not of the density inside it, for all the size classes.

Close membrane-membrane proximity induced by Ca(2+)-dependent multivalent binding of synaptotagmin-1 to phospholipids.

Synaptotagmin acts as a Ca(2+) sensor in neurotransmitter release through its two C(2) domains. Ca(2+)-dependent phospholipid binding is key for synaptotagmin function, but it is unclear how this activity cooperates with the SNARE complex involved in release or why Ca(2+) binding to the C(2)B domain is more crucial for release than Ca(2+) binding to the C(2)A domain. Here we show that Ca(2+) induces high-affinity simultaneous binding of synaptotagmin to two membranes, bringing them into close proximity. The synaptotagmin C(2)B domain is sufficient for this ability, which arises from the abundance of basic residues around its surface. We propose a model wherein synaptotagmin cooperates with the SNAREs in bringing the synaptic vesicle and plasma membranes together and accelerates membrane fusion through the highly positive electrostatic potential of its C(2)B domain.