Unanticipated difficult airway after prolonged use of a laryngeal mask airway.

The laryngeal mask airway (LMA) is recognized as a safe alternative to endotracheal intubation for short-term airway maintenance. In this case report we present the case of a term neonate with upper airway obstruction which was managed with a deflated LMA for 7 consecutive days. Despite previous reports of extended LMA use in neonates without complications, this patient experienced significant pharyngeal mucosal injury and edema, leading to difficulty with subsequent intubation attempts.

Management of the Normal and Difficult Pediatric Airway: Unique Challenges in the Time of COVID-19.

Purpose of Review: This review focuses on the challenges faced by acute care healthcare workers in the management of the normal and difficult pediatric airway during the COVID-19 pandemic and how these protocols and practices evolved during the pandemic. The current state of knowledge on timing of surgery and anesthesia is also discussed. Recent Findings: In the early days of the pandemic, information about the SARS-CoV-2 virus and disease process was scarce. Governmental, healthcare, and professional organizations created several guidelines to protect invaluable healthcare workers from the contagious virus while also delivering appropriate care to children with COVID-19. With the emergence of new studies and the deployment of new life-saving COVID-19 vaccines and other therapies, these guidelines evolved. The use of aerosol containment devices such as aerosol boxes and flexible barrier techniques was found to be ineffective in reliably containing virus particles while posing potential harm to both healthcare workers and patients. Also, the definition of aerosol-generating and dispersing medical procedures was vastly broadened. To date, use of appropriate personal protection equipment and COVID-19 vaccination are the most effective ways to protect healthcare workers and safely manage children infected with SARS-CoV-2 who require airway intervention. Summary: Evidence-based public health measures and appropriate personal protective equipment remain the best way to protect both healthcare workers and patients. As the virus and population evolve and COVID-19 vaccines become more widely available, clinicians must be willing to adapt to the emerging evidence of their impact on how safe pediatric perioperative care is delivered.

Anesthetic Management of Children With Propionic Acidemia Undergoing Esophagogastroduodenoscopy.

Propionic acidemia is a rare genetic disorder of metabolism that predisposes patients to metabolic acidosis, lethargy, neurologic dysfunction, developmental delays, and cardiomyopathy. Perioperative anesthetic management is guided toward mitigating the effects of preoperative fasting times, maintaining normovolemia, and preventing cardiovascular complications secondary to underlying cardiomyopathy. Commonly used anesthetic agents may have undesirable side effects in these patients. Propofol, the lactate in Lactated Ringer's, and neuromuscular blocking agents that undergo ester hydrolysis are poorly metabolized and can lead to metabolic acidosis. Opioids, such as fentanyl and morphine, should be used judiciously in patients with coexisting developmental delays to avoid oversedation and delayed time to resuming oral intake postanesthesia. In addition, inhaled anesthetics have direct myocardial depressive effects and can compromise cardiac function in the setting of pre-existing cardiomyopathy. The perioperative period represents a critical time in this population and appropriate planning is crucial to prevent perioperative morbidity. We present a case of an eight-year-old child undergoing esophagogastroduodenoscopy under general anesthesia and describe the anesthetic concerns we addressed to provide a safe perioperative course.

Twin-twin transfusion syndrome complicated by single ventricle physiology: A case report.

Clinically significant extrauterine twin-twin transfusion syndrome in conjoined twins is rare and carries a high risk of perinatal mortality. The ensuing postnatal imbalance in circulation across connecting vessels results in hypovolemia in the donor and hypervolemia in the recipient. Data on management and treatment are sparse especially in the setting of a single ventricle congenital heart defect. We present a case of a pair of omphalopagus conjoined twins, one with a single ventricle physiology (Twin B), who developed twin-twin transfusion syndrome shortly after birth. The resulting pathophysiology in the setting of a single ventricle congenital heart defect created added layers of complexity to their management and expedited surgical separation. Shunting from Twin B to Twin A-with an anatomically normal heart-resulted in mal-perfusion and rapid deterioration jeopardizing the health of both twins. In the preoperative course, steps taken to medically optimize the twins prior to surgery and the anesthetic considerations are detailed in this report.

Anesthetic Challenges of an Adolescent Patient with Epidermolysis Bullosa and Gitelman's Syndrome Undergoing Posterior Spinal Fusion Surgery.

Surgical correction for scoliosis is undertaken to avoid progression to cardiopulmonary compromise as well as improve the patient's overall quality of life. In this case report, we presented a case of a 14-year-old girl with epidermolysis bullosa simplex and Gitelman's syndrome who underwent posterior spinal fusion for scoliosis. The perioperative planning and intraoperative management of a patient with this unique combination of comorbidities undergoing a complex, high-risk surgical procedure were not previously chronicled in the literature. We detailed the steps undertaken to optimize the patient prior to surgery and the unique intraoperative surgical and anesthetic considerations that led to a successful completion of the surgery and recovery.

Endotracheal Intubation Using Alfentanil in a Pediatric Patient with a Mitochondrial Myopathy and Gastroparesis.

Children with mitochondrial disorders represent a subset of patients who require unique anesthetic considerations. Routinely administered medications for general anesthesia, such as propofol, have been shown to increase the risk of developing metabolic acidosis. In addition, both depolarizing and nondepolarizing neuromuscular blockers are contraindicated due to the risk of hyperkalemic cardiac arrest and worsening of preexisting muscle weakness, respectively. These limitations pose challenges while choosing appropriate medications for induction of general anesthesia, especially when the risk of aspiration is high. We present a novel case of using inhaled sevoflurane and intravenous alfentanil to facilitate intubation in a 4-year-old girl with a complex 1 mitochondrial disorder suffering from severe gastroparesis and esophageal dysmotility.

Determining the Odds of Difficult Airway Resolution Among Pediatric Patients: A Case Series.

OBJECTIVE: We sought to determine the patient factors that contribute to the improvement and resolution of difficult airways in pediatric patients. STUDY DESIGN: The hospital's Multidisciplinary Airway Registry Committee was created in November 2006 to develop a process for recognition and management of children with difficult airways. A database of these patients is actively maintained, allowing for statistical data analysis. SETTING: The tertiary care hospital system consists of 2 campuses serving the indigent pediatric population of the greater Dallas metropolitan area and performs an average of 40,000 anesthetic encounters per year. METHODS: We examined the data from a difficult airway database from a major tertiary care pediatric hospital to determine patient factors that led to airway improvement over time. Patients enrolled in the registry from November 2006 to October 2019 due to difficulties with intubation or mask ventilation were studied through statistical analysis. RESULTS: A total of 579 patients were identified. The Kaplan-Meier estimate of the 5-year deactivation rate was 14%. The most common reason for deactivation in our cohort was resolution of the difficult airway as defined by direct laryngoscopy Cormack and Lehane grade I or IIa/IIb, easy mask ventilation or laryngeal mask placement, or resolution of subglottic stenosis. CONCLUSION: Advancing age and male sex at the time of enrollment were the most important predictors of an airway remaining difficult.

A comparison of videolaryngoscopy using standard blades or non-standard blades in children in the Paediatric Difficult Intubation Registry.

BACKGROUND: The design of a videolaryngoscope blade may affect its efficacy. We classified videolaryngoscope blades as standard and non-standard shapes to compare their efficacy performing tracheal intubation in children enrolled in the Paediatric Difficult Intubation Registry. METHODS: Cases entered in the Registry from March 2017 to January 2020 were analysed. We compared the success rates of initial and eventual tracheal intubation, complications, and technical difficulties between the two groups and by weight stratification. RESULTS: Videolaryngoscopy was used in 1313 patients. Standard and non-standard blades were used in 529 and 740 patients, respectively. Both types were used in 44 patients. In children weighing <5 kg, standard blades had significantly greater success than non-standard blades at initial (51% vs 26%, P=0.002) and eventual (81% vs 58%, P=0.002) attempts at tracheal intubation. In multivariable logistic regression analysis, standard blades had 3-fold greater odds of success at initial tracheal intubations compared with non-standard blades (adjusted odds ratio 3.0, 95% confidence interval): 1.32-6.86, P=0.0009). Standard blades had 2.6-fold greater odds of success at eventual tracheal intubation compared with non-standard blades in children weighing <5 kg (adjusted odds ratio 2.6, 95% confidence interval: 1.08-6.25, P=0.033). There was no significant difference found in children weighing ≥5 kg. CONCLUSIONS: In infants weighing <5 kg, videolaryngoscopy with standard blades was associated with a significantly greater success rate than videolaryngoscopy with non-standard blades. Videolaryngoscopy with a standard blade is a sensible choice for tracheal intubation in children who weigh <5 kg.

First-attempt success rate of video laryngoscopy in small infants (VISI): a multicentre, randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Orotracheal intubation of infants using direct laryngoscopy can be challenging. We aimed to investigate whether video laryngoscopy with a standard blade done by anaesthesia clinicians improves the first-attempt success rate of orotracheal intubation and reduces the risk of complications when compared with direct laryngoscopy. We hypothesised that the first-attempt success rate would be higher with video laryngoscopy than with direct laryngoscopy. METHODS: In this multicentre, parallel group, randomised controlled trial, we recruited infants without difficult airways abnormalities requiring orotracheal intubation in operating theatres at four quaternary children's hospitals in the USA and one in Australia. We randomly assigned patients (1:1) to video laryngoscopy or direct laryngoscopy using random permuted blocks of size 2, 4, and 6, and stratified by site and clinician role. Guardians were masked to group assignment. The primary outcome was the proportion of infants with a successful first attempt at orotracheal intubation. Analysis (modified intention-to-treat [mITT] and per-protocol) used a generalised estimating equation model to account for clustering of patients treated by the same clinician and institution, and adjusted for gestational age, American Society of Anesthesiologists physical status, weight, clinician role, and institution. The trial is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03396432. FINDINGS: Between June 4, 2018, and Aug 19, 2019, 564 infants were randomly assigned: 282 (50%) to video laryngoscopy and 282 (50%) to direct laryngoscopy. The mean age of infants was 5·5 months (SD 3·3). 274 infants in the video laryngoscopy group and 278 infants in the direct laryngoscopy group were included in the mITT analysis. In the video laryngoscopy group, 254 (93%) infants were successfully intubated on the first attempt compared with 244 (88%) in the direct laryngoscopy group (adjusted absolute risk difference 5·5% [95% CI 0·7 to 10·3]; p=0·024). Severe complications occurred in four (2%) infants in the video laryngoscopy group compared with 15 (5%) in the direct laryngoscopy group (-3·7% [-6·5 to -0·9]; p=0·0087). Fewer oesophageal intubations occurred in the video laryngoscopy group (n=1 [<1%]) compared with in the direct laryngoscopy group (n=7 [3%]; -2·3 [-4·3 to -0·3]; p=0·028). INTERPRETATION: Among anaesthetised infants, using video laryngoscopy with a standard blade improves the first-attempt success rate and reduces complications. FUNDING: Anaesthesia Patient Safety Foundation, Society for Airway Management, and Karl Storz Endoscopy.

Anesthetic implications of a pediatric patient with stiff skin syndrome: A case report.

Stiff skin syndrome is a rare genetic disorder that is present in infancy or early childhood. It is characterized by hard, inflexible skin and limited joint mobility making anesthetic management of these patients challenging. Their limited neck flexibility and chest wall rigidity make intubation and mask ventilation difficult. Intraoperative positioning can be challenging due to joint contractures and potential entrapment peripheral neuropathy. Even though peripheral intravenous access can be relatively easy, central venous cannulation may be problematic due to the hard skin overlying the entry sites. Our case report details the anesthetic management and considerations of a pediatric patient with stiff skin syndrome.

Pediatric Airway Management in COVID-19 Patients: Consensus Guidelines From the Society for Pediatric Anesthesia's Pediatric Difficult Intubation Collaborative and the Canadian Pediatric Anesthesia Society.

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (coronavirus disease 2019 [COVID-19]) pandemic has challenged medical systems and clinicians globally to unforeseen levels. Rapid spread of COVID-19 has forced clinicians to care for patients with a highly contagious disease without evidence-based guidelines. Using a virtual modified nominal group technique, the Pediatric Difficult Intubation Collaborative (PeDI-C), which currently includes 35 hospitals from 6 countries, generated consensus guidelines on airway management in pediatric anesthesia based on expert opinion and early data about the disease. PeDI-C identified overarching goals during care, including minimizing aerosolized respiratory secretions, minimizing the number of clinicians in contact with a patient, and recognizing that undiagnosed asymptomatic patients may shed the virus and infect health care workers. Recommendations include administering anxiolytic medications, intravenous anesthetic inductions, tracheal intubation using video laryngoscopes and cuffed tracheal tubes, use of in-line suction catheters, and modifying workflow to recover patients from anesthesia in the operating room. Importantly, PeDI-C recommends that anesthesiologists consider using appropriate personal protective equipment when performing aerosol-generating medical procedures in asymptomatic children, in addition to known or suspected children with COVID-19. Airway procedures should be done in negative pressure rooms when available. Adequate time should be allowed for operating room cleaning and air filtration between surgical cases. Research using rigorous study designs is urgently needed to inform safe practices during the COVID-19 pandemic. Until further information is available, PeDI-C advises that clinicians consider these guidelines to enhance the safety of health care workers during airway management when performing aerosol-generating medical procedures. These guidelines have been endorsed by the Society for Pediatric Anesthesia and the Canadian Pediatric Anesthesia Society.

Characterization of upper airway obstruction using cine MRI in children with residual obstructive sleep apnea after adenotonsillectomy.

OBJECTIVES/BACKGROUND: Tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy (T&A) lead to resolution of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) in most children. However, OSA persists in about 25-40% of children. Cinematic magnetic resonance imaging (cine MRI) can aid the management of persistent OSA by localizing airway obstruction. We describe our experience in implementing and optimizing a cine MRI protocol by using a 3 Tesla MRI scanner, and the use of dexmedetomidine for sedation to improve reproducibility, safety, and diagnostic accuracy. PATIENTS/METHODS: Patients aged 3-18 years who underwent cine MRI for the evaluation of persistent OSA after T&A and failed positive airway pressure (PAP) therapy were included. Clinical data and the apnea-hyponea index were compared with quantitative and qualitative estimates of airway obstruction from imaging sequences. RESULTS: A total of 36 children were included with a mean age of 9.6 ± 4.6 (SD) years with 40% over 12 years of age. Two-thirds of them were boys. Seventeen out of 36 children (47%) had Down syndrome. Single site and multilevel obstruction were identified in 21 of 36 patients (58%) and in 12 of 36 patients (33%), respectively. All cine MRIs were performed without complications. Multiple regression analysis demonstrated that a combination of the minimum airway diameter and body mass index z-score best predicted OSA severity (P = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: Cine MRI is a sensitive, safe, and noninvasive modality for visualizing upper airway obstruction in children with persistent OSA after T&A. Accurate identification of obstruction can assist in surgical planning in children who fail PAP therapy.