Time's up. descriptive epidemiology of multi-morbidity and time spent on health related activity by older Australians: a time use survey.

Most Western health systems remain single illness orientated despite the growing prevalence of multi-morbidity. Identifying how much time people with multiple chronic conditions spend managing their health will help policy makers and health service providers make decisions about areas of patient need for support. This article presents findings from an Australian study concerning the time spent on health related activity by older adults (aged 50 years and over), most of whom had multiple chronic conditions. A recall questionnaire was developed, piloted, and adjusted. Sampling was undertaken through three bodies; the Lung Foundation Australia (COPD sub-sample), National Diabetes Services Scheme (Diabetes sub-sample) and National Seniors Australia (Seniors sub-sample). Questionnaires were mailed out during 2011 to 10,600 older adults living in Australia. 2540 survey responses were received and analysed. Descriptive analyses were completed to obtain median values for the hours spent on each activity per month. The mean number of chronic conditions was 3.7 in the COPD sub-sample, 3.4 in the Diabetes sub-sample and 2.0 in the NSA sub-sample. The study identified a clear trend of increased time use associated with increased number of chronic conditions. Median monthly time use was 5-16 hours per month overall for our three sub-samples. For respondents in the top decile with five or more chronic conditions the median time use was equivalent to two to three hours per day, and if exercise is included in the calculations, respondents spent from between five and eight hours per day: an amount similar to full-time work. Multi-morbidity imposes considerable time burdens on patients. Ageing is associated with increasing rates of multi-morbidity. Many older adults are facing high demands on their time to manage their health in the face of decreasing energy and mobility. Their time use must be considered in health service delivery and health system reform.

Obesity and asthma at school entry: co-morbidities and temporal trends.

AIM: A decline in asthma prevalence from 2000 to 2005 was reported previously. The objective is to examine the temporal trends for the prevalence of obesity and other childhood disorders and consider the extent to which associations between asthma and other co-morbidities can be accounted for by body mass index. METHODS: Serial cross-sectional surveys of primary school entrants (n = 18,999) in the Australian Capital Territory between 2001 and 2005 were used. Asthma, recent respiratory symptoms and diabetes data were extracted from parental reports. Anthropometric measurements were obtained from health assessments by school nurses. Child obesity was defined using the age and sex-specific Cole criteria. Time trends for the prevalence of obesity and other disorders, and the association between 'current asthma' and co-morbidities were analysed using multiple logistic regression and other analyses. RESULTS: Obesity prevalence was 5.24% in 2001 decreasing to 3.60% in 2005 (test of linear trend P = 0.02). Overweight (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 1.30 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.16, 1.46), P < 0.001) and obese (AOR 1.36 (95% CI 1.13, 1.62), P = 0.001) children were more likely to report 'asthma ever'. Children with diabetes (AOR 9.35 (95% CI 3.11, 28.12, P < 0.001)) and attention deficit (AOR 3.39 (95% CI 2.04, 5.64), P < 0.001) were more likely to report 'current asthma'. CONCLUSIONS: The pattern of association with co-morbidities was different for asthma and obesity. The temporal decline/plateau effect in 'current asthma' could not be explained by concurrent body mass index changes. The decline in obesity was largely driven by the 2005 findings. Longer term trends need to be evaluated further.

Health work by older people with chronic illness: how much time does it take?

PURPOSE: People living with chronic illness report spending a lot of time managing their health, attempting to balance the demands of their illness/es with other activities. This study was designed to measure the time older people with chronic illness spend on specific health-related activities. Key methods: Data were collected in 2010 using a national survey of people aged 50 years and over selected from the membership of National Seniors Australia, the Diabetes Services Scheme and The Lung Foundation. Respondents provided recall data on time used for personal health care, non-clinical health activity; and health service interactions. MAIN RESULTS: While most people with a chronic illness spend on average less than 30 minutes a day on health-related activities, the highest decile of respondents averaged at least 2 hours each day. People with COPD report the highest expenditure of time. The greatest amount of time was spent on daily personal health care activities. MAIN CONCLUSION: For a minority of people with chronic illness, time demands for health-related activities can be so great that other activities must be affected. Some time demands are amenable to system interventions that would result in a more patient-centered organisation of care.

Hay fever in a changing climate: linking an Internet-based diary with environmental data.

Investigating the impact of climate change on human health requires the development of efficient tools that link patient symptoms with changing environmental variables. We developed an internet-based hay fever diary linked to simultaneously recorded pollen load and weather variables in Canberra, Australia over spring 2010. We recruited 42 hay fever sufferers to complete a simple online pollen diary daily over a period of 60 days. In conjunction, daily airborne pollen load was counted and meteorological data collected simultaneously. We focused on the relationships between temperature, rainfall, pollen count and rhinoconjunctivitis symptoms. Pollen load increased after a peak rainfall event until the end of the study. Compliance was high, averaging 79% of days per person. Nasal rhinoconjunctivitis symptoms increased in concert with increasing pollen load, and then remained high. Mucosal itching increased more gradually and strongly coincided with increased daily maximum temperature. Our study successfully demonstrated the feasibility of linking pollen load and climate variables to symptoms of rhinoconjunctivitis in the Australian community. However, a larger study would better explore the nature of associations between these variables. Similar online methods could be used to monitor a range of health responses to our changing environment.

The anatomical placement of body organs by Australian and New Zealand patients and health professionals in general practice.

INTRODUCTION: Understanding patients' awareness of the anatomical placement of their body organs is important for doctor-patient communication. AIM: To measure the correct anatomical placement of body organs by people from Australian and New Zealand general practices METHOD: A questionnaire survey containing drawings of 11 organs placed in different locations within each drawing. RESULTS: Among 1156 participants, there was no difference in the proportion of correct placement of 11 organs between Australian (51.7%) and New Zealand (49.6%) general practices. There was a positive correlation between the proportion of correctly placed organs and the age participants left school (p=0.012) and a negative correlation with the number of GP visits in the previous year (p=0.040). Participants from rural Australia were more likely to correctly place organs than urban participants (p=0.018). The mean proportion of organs correctly placed for doctors was 80.5%, nurses 66.5%, allied health 61.5%, health administrators 50.6% and the remaining consulting patients 51.3%. DISCUSSION: Patients from Australian and New Zealand general practice were poorly aware of the correct placement of organs. Health professionals were moderately better than patients at correct placement.

Choosing to biopsy or refer suspicious melanocytic lesions in general practice.

BACKGROUND: General practitioners (GPs) are involved in the management of most melanocytic skin lesions in Australia. A high quality biopsy technique is a crucial first step in management, as it is recognized that poor techniques can mislead, delay, or miss a diagnosis of melanoma. There has been little published on the biopsy decisions and techniques of GPs. This study aims to describe the current management choices made by GPs for suspicious melanocytic skin lesions and to compare their choices with the best practice guidelines. METHODS: An anonymous survey of GPs presented with three clinical scenarios with increasing complexity of melanoma in which a referral or biopsy decision was specified. RESULTS: 391 mailed surveys with a 76.3% response rate. Mean biopsy experience was 4.14 biopsies per GP per month. The rates of choosing to refer among the three scenarios were 31%, 52% and 81% respectively, with referral to surgery being the most common choice (81%). Most biopsy techniques (55%) were chosen according to best practice guidelines, although non-guideline biopsy techniques chosen included shave (n=10), punch biopsy (n=57), wide excisions (n=65), and flaps (n=10). The few GPs (n=5) who identified themselves as skin specialist GPs were no more likely to adhere to guidelines than their colleagues. CONCLUSION: A majority of referrals and biopsies were chosen by GPs according to best practice guidelines, but concern remains for the high proportion of GPs making non-guideline based choices. How GPs choose to biopsy or refer needs further training, audit, and research if Australia is to improve the outcome of melanoma management in general practice.

Infant Feeding Practices and Nut Allergy over Time in Australian School Entrant Children.

Aim. To measure the association between infant feeding practices and parent-reported nut allergy in school entrant children. Method. The Kindergarten Health Check Questionnaire was delivered to all 110 Australian Capital Territory (ACT) primary schools between 2006 and 2009. Retrospective analyses were undertaken of the data collected from the kindergarten population. Results. Of 15142 children a strong allergic reaction to peanuts and other nuts was reported in 487 (3.2%) and 307 (3.9%), children, respectively. There was a positive association between parent reported nut allergy and breast feeding (OR = 1.53; 1.11-2.11) and having a regular general practitioner (GP) (OR = 1.42; 1.05-1.92). A protective effect was found in children who were fed foods other than breast milk in the first six months (OR = 0.71; 0.60-0.84). Conclusion. Children were at an increased risk of developing a parent-reported nut allergy if they were breast fed in the first six months of life.

Propionibacterium acnes (P. acnes) resistance and antibiotic use in patients attending Australian general practice.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Antibiotic resistance in the community, including transfer between bacteria, is a growing concern for clinicians. Acne is commonly treated in general practice, sometimes with antibiotics. The aim of this study is to measure the rate of carriage of antibiotic resistant Propionibacterium acnes 10 years apart in general practice and the relationship of resistance to type of treatment, as well potential effects on other flora. METHODS: Patients (N = 215) with acne presenting to Australian Capital Territory and south-eastern New South Wales general practices were swabbed for P. acnes in 1997-1998 and 2007. Clinical details were collected with questionnaires. In 2007 swabs were also taken for Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pneumoniae. GP's diagnostic classification of acne was tested using a set of standard photographs. RESULTS: Resistant P. acnes was isolated from 20 patients (9%) and the proportion that was resistant was the same in 1997-1998 and in 2007. Antibiotic use, particularly topical, was associated with P. acnes resistance. Resistance rates declined with the time elapsed since ceasing antibiotics. Use of retinoids was associated with a decreased chance of growing P. acnes (P = 0.008) but not with decreased resistance. Simultaneous resistance with S. aureus was not detected, but only in 30 patients was S. aureus isolated. CONCLUSIONS: P. acnes resistance was similar in 1997-1998 and in 2007.The chance of a patient carrying a resistant strain of P. acnes is significantly greater with recent exposure to antibiotics, and clinicians should limit prescribing where possible. Resistance disappears rapidly after ceasing antibiotics. Cross resistance with other organisms was not detected in this study.

Patients and tests - a study into patient understanding of blood tests ordered by their doctor.

BACKGROUND: Patient understanding of diagnostic tests is important in general practice. This study describes how patients understand information about their tests, using blood tests as an example. METHOD: A survey of patients attending two hospital blood collection centres in Canberra in the Australian Capital Territory. RESULTS: An 89% response rate (n=135): 90% of patients understood the reasons for tests but only 19% could name them; 86% reported that their doctor explained their tests and 89% reported they understood their doctor's explanation. Doctors offered 35% of patients a copy of test results. Patients who knew their general practitioner were more aware of preparations needed for undertaking blood tests (p<0.001). Thirty-six percent would seek information from the people working at blood collection centres. DISCUSSION: Patients understood the reasons blood tests were ordered, although only a few could name them. A strong relationship was found between doctors explaining blood tests and patients understanding the reasons for tests. Nevertheless, information sharing was at a low level.

Clinical audit of health promotion of vitamin D in one general practice.

BACKGROUND: The clinical audit of vitamin D health promotion in one Australian general practice was undertaken by measuring health service use and serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels in 995 patients aged 45 to 49 years. FINDINGS: Over 3 years, 486 (51%) patients had a Medicare funded Health Assessment. More women (54%) were assessed than men (46%) p = 0.010. Mean 25-OHD was higher for men (70.0 nmol/l) than women (60.3 nmol/l) p < 0.001. More patients had their weight measured (50%) than 25-OHD tested (28%).Among 266 patients who had a 25-OHD test, 68 (26%) had normal levels 80+ nmol/l, 109 (41%) were borderline 51-79 nmol/l, and 89 (33%) were low < 51 nmol/l. Mean 25-OHD was higher in summer (73.7 nmol/l) than winter (54.7 nmol/l) p < 0.001. Sending uninvited written information about 25-OHD had no effect on patients' subsequent attendance. CONCLUSIONS: Health promotion information about vitamin D was provided to 50% of a targeted group of patients over a one-year period. Provision of this information had no effect on the uptake rates of an invitation to attend for a general health assessment.

Oral folic acid and vitamin B-12 supplementation to prevent cognitive decline in community-dwelling older adults with depressive symptoms--the Beyond Ageing Project: a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Evidence remains unclear as to whether folic acid (FA) and vitamin B-12 supplementation is effective in reducing depressive symptoms. OBJECTIVES: The objective was to determine whether oral FA + vitamin B-12 supplementation prevented cognitive decline in a cohort of community-dwelling older adults with elevated psychological distress. DESIGN: A randomized controlled trial (RCT) with a completely crossed 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design comprising daily oral 400 µg FA + 100 µg vitamin B-12 supplementation (compared with placebo), physical activity promotion, and depression literacy with comparator control interventions for reducing depressive symptoms was conducted in 900 adults aged 60-74 y with elevated psychological distress (Kessler Distress 10-Scale; scores >15). The 2-y intervention was delivered in 10 modules via mail with concurrent telephone tracking calls. Main outcome measures examined change in cognitive functioning at 12 and 24 mo by using the Telephone Interview for Cognitive Status-Modified (TICS-M) and the Brief Test of Adult Cognition by Telephone (processing speed); the Informant Questionnaire on Cognitive Decline in the Elderly was administered at 24 mo. RESULTS: FA + vitamin B-12 improved the TICS-M total (P = 0.032; effect size d = 0.17), TICS-M immediate (P = 0.046; d = 0.15), and TICS-M delayed recall (P = 0.013; effect size d = 0.18) scores at 24 mo in comparison with placebo. No significant changes were evident in orientation, attention, semantic memory, processing speed, or informant reports. CONCLUSION: Long-term supplementation of daily oral 400 µg FA + 100 µg vitamin B-12 promotes improvement in cognitive functioning after 24 mo, particularly in immediate and delayed memory performance. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT00214682.

Inequality in provider continuity for children by Australian general practitioners.

BACKGROUND: There is little published on provider continuity in Australian general practice and none on its effect on inequality of care for children. METHOD: Questionnaire administered to parents of the ACT Kindergarten Health Screen asking the name of their child's usual GP and practice address between 2001 and 2008. RESULTS: Parents of 30,789 children named 433 GPs and 141 practices. In each year, an average of 77% of parents could name both the GP and the practice, an average of 11% of parents could name only the practice, and an average of 12% of parents could name neither. In each year, 25% of parents could not name a usual GP for children of Aboriginal or Torres Straight Islander descent, or children born outside of Australia, compared to 10% of all other children (p = < 0.0001). The frequency of GPs displaying continuity of care varied over time with 19% of GPs being present in the ACT in only one year and 39% of GPs being present in every year over the eight years of study. GPs displayed two different forms of transience either by working in more than one practice in each year (5% of GPs), or by not being present in the ACT region from one year to the next (15% of GPs). Fewer parents nominated transient GPs as their child's GP compared to choosing GPs who displayed continuity (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Many GPs (39%) were reported to provide continuity of care for in the ACT region and some GPs (20%) displayed transient care. Indigenous children or children born outside of Australia had less equity of access to a nominated GP than all other children. Such inequity might disappear if voluntary registration of children was adopted in Australian general practice.

Chronic disease management items in general practice: a population-based study of variation in claims by claimant characteristics.

OBJECTIVE: To describe how Medical Benefits Schedule (MBS) chronic disease (CD) item claims vary by sociodemographic and health characteristics in people with heart disease, asthma or diabetes. DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: A cross-sectional analysis of linked unit-level MBS and survey data from the first 102,934 participants enrolled in the 45 and Up Study, a large-scale cohort study in New South Wales, who completed the baseline survey between January 2006 and July 2008. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Claim for any general practitioner CD item within 18 months before enrolment, ascertained from MBS records. RESULTS: The proportion of individuals making claims for MBS CD items was 18.5% for asthma, 22.3% for heart disease, and 44.9% for diabetes. Associations between participant characteristics and a claim for a CD item showed similar patterns across the three diseases. For heart disease and asthma, people most likely to claim a CD item were women, older, of low income and education levels, with multiple chronic conditions, fair or poor self-rated health, obesity and low physical activity levels. The pattern of claims was slightly different for participants with diabetes in that there was no significant association with number of chronic conditions, smoking or physical activity. CONCLUSIONS: Many individuals with self-reported CD do not claim CD items. People with diabetes and individuals with greatest need based on health, socioeconomic and lifestyle risk factors are the most likely to claim CD items.

Views of GPs and practice nurses on support needed to respond to pandemic influenza: a qualitative study.

INTRODUCTION: Five years ago Australia, and the world, placed itself on heightened alert for pandemic influenza, based on concerns about the potential spread of the avian influenza virus. This prompted a flurry of preparation activity involving general practice, with information from various sources; government, colleges and divisions of general practice. METHOD: To assess how general practitioners and practice nurses perceive this information, practice nurses and general practitioners were interviewed as part of a larger project exploring the role of the Australian general practice sector in an influenza pandemic. Results were validated by two focus groups and scenario sessions. FINDINGS: Participants perceived that non-government organisations rarely gave useful information during a pandemic outbreak. Local divisions were perceived as having a practical and useful role, providing hands-on support to practices during a pandemic outbreak. Our participants did not perceive any coordination in the delivery of information sent by all the organisations involved in a pandemic response and therefore rejected our second hypothesis. CONCLUSIONS: More planning needs to go into the coordinated response of the general practice sector to a pandemic, and such a response should include the support of local Divisions, both as a conduit for information and to assist practices to develop response plans.

Following the funding trail: financing, nurses and teamwork in Australian general practice.

BACKGROUND: Across the globe the emphasis on roles and responsibilities of primary care teams is under scrutiny. This paper begins with a review of general practice financing in Australia, and how nurses are currently funded. We then examine the influence on funding structures on the role of the nurse. We set out three dilemmas for policy-makers in this area: lack of an evidence base for incentives, possible untoward impacts on interdisciplinary functioning, and the substitution/enhancement debate. METHODS: This three year, multimethod study undertook rapid appraisal of 25 general practices and year-long studies in seven practices where a change was introduced to the role of the nurse. Data collected included interviews with nurses (n = 36), doctors (n = 24), and managers (n = 22), structured observation of the practice nurse (51 hours of observation), and detailed case studies of the change process in the seven year-long studies. RESULTS: Despite specific fee-for-service funding being available, only 6% of nurse activities generated such a fee. Yet the influence of the funding was to focus nurse activity on areas that they perceived were peripheral to their roles within the practice. CONCLUSIONS: Interprofessional relationships and organisational climate in general practices are highly influential in terms of nursing role and the ability of practices to respond to and utilise funding mechanisms. These factors need to be considered, and the development of optimal teamwork supported in the design and implementation of further initiatives that financially support nursing in general practice.

Health professionals, patients and chronic illness policy: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: This study investigates health professionals' reactions to patients' perceptions of health issues - a little-researched topic vital to the reform of the care of chronic illness. METHODS: Focus groups were undertaken with doctors, nurses, allied health staff and pharmacists (n = 88) in two Australian urban regions. The focus groups explored responses to patient experiences of chronic illness (COPD, Diabetes, CHF) obtained in an earlier qualitative study. Content analysis was undertaken of the transcripts assisted by NVivo7 software. RESULTS: Health professionals and patients agreed on general themes: that competing demands in self-management, financial pressure and co-morbidity were problems for people with chronic illness. However where patients and carers focused on their personal challenges, health professionals often saw the patient experience as a series of failures relating to compliance or service fragmentation. Some saw this as a result of individual shortcomings. Most identified structural and attitudinal issues. All saw the prime solution as additional resources for their own activities. Fee for service providers (mainly doctors) sought increased remuneration; salaried professionals (mainly nurses and allied health professionals) sought to increase capacity within their professional group. CONCLUSIONS: Professionals focus on their own resources and the behaviour of other professionals to improve management of chronic illness. They did not factor information from patient experience into their views about systems improvement. This inability to identify solutions beyond their professional sphere highlights the limitations of an over-reliance on the perspectives of health professionals. The views of patients and carers must find a stronger voice in health policy.

Achieving a balanced life in the face of chronic illness.

The increasing prevalence of chronic disease is a driver of health system reform in most economically advanced nations. A consistent theme within these reforms is building greater patient-centredness into the health care delivery. This study aims to develop an in-depth understanding of the experience of patients and family carers affected by chronic illness that will be the basis on which to propose policy and health system interventions that are patient-centred. Participants struggled with the ongoing tasks of balancing their lives with the increasing demands and intrusion of chronic illness. Their attempts to achieve a balance were seriously hampered by fragmented services, complexity in navigating health services, relationships with health professionals and others, and co-morbidity. Future policy directions include designing models of care and infrastructure that enable patients and their family carers to balance life and illness, and aligning patient-centred care not only within health services but also with community and social support services.

Can clinical governance deliver quality improvement in Australian general practice and primary care? A systematic review of the evidence.

OBJECTIVES: To review the literature on different models of clinical governance and to explore their relevance to Australian primary health care, and their potential contributions on quality and safety. DATA SOURCES: 25 electronic databases, scanning reference lists of articles and consultation with experts in the field. We searched publications in English after 1999, but a search of the German language literature for a specific model type was also undertaken. The grey literature was explored through a hand search of the medical trade press and websites of relevant national and international clearing houses and professional or industry bodies. 11 software packages commonly used in Australian general practice were reviewed for any potential contribution to clinical governance. STUDY SELECTION: 19 high-quality studies that assessed outcomes were included. DATA EXTRACTION: All abstracts were screened by one researcher, and 10% were screened by a second researcher to crosscheck screening quality. Studies were reviewed and coded by four reviewers, with all studies being rated using standard critical appraisal tools such as the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology checklist. Two researchers reviewed the Australian general practice software. Interviews were conducted with 16 informants representing service, regional primary health care, national and international perspectives. DATA SYNTHESIS: Most evidence supports governance models which use targeted, peer-led feedback on the clinician's own practice. Strategies most used in clinical governance models were audit, performance against indicators, and peer-led reflection on evidence or performance. CONCLUSIONS: The evidence base for clinical governance is fragmented, and focuses mainly on process rather than outcomes. Few publications address models that enhance safety, efficiency, sustainability and the economics of primary health care. Locally relevant clinical indicators, the use of computerised medical record systems, regional primary health care organisations that have the capacity to support the uptake of clinical governance at the practice level, and learning from the Aboriginal community-controlled sector will help integrate clinical governance into primary care.

Health service attendance patterns in an urban Aboriginal health service.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the health service attendance patterns of urban Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander (Aboriginal) Australians and make comparisons with those of the general Australian population. DESIGN AND SETTING: General practitioner-completed survey of all attendances over two separate 2-week periods in 2006 at an urban Aboriginal health service in Canberra, which provides services for about 3500 patients per annum. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Standardised attendance ratios (SARs) for a range of health problems, using patients attending Australian general practice for the same reasons as the reference population. RESULTS: Patients attending the Aboriginal health service were significantly younger than the Australian general practice patient reference population. The most common conditions managed were psychological, encompassing substance misuse; psychological problems accounted for 24% of all attendances. Patients attending the Aboriginal health service had higher rates of attendance for psychological conditions (SAR, 2.14; 95% CI, 2.01-2.28), endocrine conditions (SAR, 2.44; 95% CI, 2.29-2.60) and neurological conditions (SAR, 2.90; 95% CI, 2.71-3.09), as well as for circulatory, digestive and male and female genital conditions, than the reference population. Patients attending the Aboriginal health service had significantly lower attendance rates than the Australian population for respiratory illnesses, and conditions related to eyes or ears. CONCLUSIONS: At this urban Aboriginal health service, attendance patterns reflected complex health care needs that are different from those expected of a population of this age. Urban Aboriginal health service attendance appears to reflect significant ill health among the patients, aligning more with Aboriginal health statistics nationally rather than health statistics for urban non-Aboriginal Australians.