RESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Almond production in California is an intensively managed agroecosystem dependent on managed pollination by honey bees, Apis mellifera L. A recent laboratory study reported synergism in honey bees between chlorantraniliprole, a common diamide insecticide used in almond orchards, and the fungicide propiconazole. Indeed, there is an emerging body of evidence that honey bee cytochrome P450 monooxygenases of the CYP9Q subfamily are involved in the detoxification of insecticides across a diverse range of chemical classes. The objective of the present study was to unveil the molecular background of the described synergism and to explore the potential role of CYP9Q enzymes in diamide detoxification. RESULTS: Our study confirmed the previously reported synergistic potential of propiconazole on chlorantraniliprole in acute contact toxicity bioassays, whereas no synergism was observed for flubendiamide. Fluorescence-based biochemical assays revealed an interaction of chlorantraniliprole, but not flubendiamide, with functionally expressed CYP9Q2 and CYP9Q3. These findings were validated by an increased chlorantraniliprole tolerance of transgenic Drosophila lines expressing CYP9Q2/3, and an analytically confirmed oxidative metabolism of chlorantraniliprole by recombinantly expressed enzymes. Furthermore, we showed that several triazole fungicides used in almond orchards, including propiconazole, were strong nanomolar inhibitors of functionally expressed honey bee CYP9Q2 and CYP9Q3, whereas other fungicides such as iprodione and cyprodinil did not inhibit these enzymes. CONCLUSION: Honey bee CYP9Q enzymes are involved in chlorantraniliprole metabolism and inhibited by triazole fungicides possibly leading to synergism in acute contact toxicity bioassays. Our mechanistic approach has the potential to inform tier I honey bee pesticide risk assessment.