Standing on the shoulders of a giant: The legacy of Robert M. Sellers.

Robert M. Sellers, PhD, most known for his influential and highly cited Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity (MMRI), is one of the most prolific and foundational Black scholars in psychology. From racial identity theory development and measurement to conceptual and methodological innovations in studying the lived experiences of Black people, Sellers' scholarship centers on the lives of Black communities. Sellers' mentorship and contributions to the professional development of scholars and professionals of color have supported and catalyzed new intergenerational knowledge building by these scholars, ensuring a perpetuating and far-reaching legacy in psychology. In this article, we: (a) celebrate Sellers' enduring contribution to the racial identity literature and its profound impact on psychology as a discipline as well as numerous subfields of psychology, (b) outline his contributions to the racial socialization literature, (c) describe methodological innovations in racial identity and racial socialization research advanced through his scholarship, and (d) summarize his contributions in professional development and mentorship and his leadership roles. Sellers' scholarly contributions and mentorship have transformed the discipline of psychology and the social sciences broadly speaking, making him one of the most influential psychologists in the modern era. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Chill, be cool man: African American men, identity, coping, and aggressive ideation.

Aggression is an important correlate of violence, depression, coping, and suicide among emerging young African American males. Yet most researchers treat aggression deterministically, fail to address cultural factors, or consider the potential for individual characteristics to exert an intersectional influence on this psychosocial outcome. Addressing this gap, we consider the moderating effect of coping on the relationship between masculine and racial identity and aggressive ideation among African American males (N = 128) drawn from 2 large Midwestern universities. Using the phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory and person-centered methodology as a guide, hierarchical cluster analysis grouped participants into profile groups based on their responses to both a measure of racial identity and a measure of masculine identity. Results from the cluster analysis revealed 3 distinct identity clusters: Identity Ambivalent, Identity Appraising, and Identity Consolidated. Although these cluster groups did not differ with regard to coping, significant differences were observed between cluster groups in relation to aggressive ideation. Further, a full model with identity profile clusters, coping, and aggressive ideation indicates that cluster membership significantly moderates the relationship between coping and aggressive ideation. The implications of these data for intersecting identities of African American men, and the association of identity and outcomes related to risk for mental health and violence, are discussed.

Posttraumatic stress disorder in African Americans: a two year follow-up study.

The present study was a prospective, naturalistic, longitudinal investigation of the two year course of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in a sample of African Americans with anxiety disorders. The study objectives were to examine the two year course of PTSD and to evaluate differences between African Americans with PTSD and anxiety disorders and African Americans with anxiety disorders but no PTSD with regard to comorbidity, psychosocial impairment, physical and emotional functioning, and treatment participation. The participants were 67 African Americans with PTSD and 98 African Americans without PTSD (mean age 41.5 years, 67.3% female). Individuals with PTSD were more likely to have higher comorbidity, lower functioning, and they were less likely to seek treatment than those with other anxiety disorders but no PTSD. The rate of recovery from PTSD over two years was 0.10 and recovery from comorbid Major Depressive Disorder was 0.55. PTSD appears to be persistent over time in this population. The rates of recovery were lower than what has been reported in previous longitudinal studies with predominantly non-Latino Whites. It is imperative to examine barriers to treatment and factors related to treatment engagement for this population.

Disparity in posttraumatic stress disorder diagnosis among African American pregnant women.

To determine whether African American women expecting their first infant carry a disproportionate burden of posttraumatic stress disorder morbidity, we conducted a comparative analysis of cross-sectional data from the initial psychiatric interview in a prospective cohort study of posttraumatic stress disorder effects on childbearing outcomes. Participants were recruited from maternity clinics in three health systems in the Midwestern USA. Eligibility criteria were being 18 years or older, able to speak English, expecting a first infant, and less than 28 weeks gestation. Telephone interview data was collected from 1,581 women prior to 28 weeks gestation; four declined to answer racial identity items (n = 1,577), 709 women self-identified as African American, 868 women did not. Measures included the Life Stressor Checklist, the National Women's Study Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Module, the Composite International Diagnostic Interview, and the Centers for Disease Control's Perinatal Risk Assessment Monitoring System survey. The 709 African American pregnant women had more trauma exposure, posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and diagnosis, comorbidity and pregnancy substance use, and had less mental health treatment than 868 non-African Americans. Lifetime prevalence was 24.0% versus 17.1%, respectively (OR = 1.5, p = 0.001). Current prevalence was 13.4% versus 3.5% (OR = 4.3, p < 0.001). Current prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was four times higher among African American women. Their risk for PTSD did not differ by sociodemographic status, but was explained by greater trauma exposure. Traumatic stress may be an additional, addressable stress factor in birth outcome disparities.

An examination of the African American experience of everyday discrimination and symptoms of psychological distress.

Current theoretical models suggest that the most potent and impacting discrimination experienced by African Americans in the post Jim Crow era are subtle and unconscious forms of discrimination that are experienced on a daily basis. This study investigates the relationship between perceived everyday discrimination and anxiety and depressive symptoms. Further, we examine gender as a moderator of this relationship. Data come from the 1995 Detroit Area Study data with 570 African American respondents. Results indicate that perceived discrimination is directly related to both symptoms of depression and anxiety. Gender moderates the relationship between discrimination and anxiety symptoms, but not discrimination and depressive symptoms. Overall, different patterns of relationships were apparent for men and women.

The context of caretaking in rural areas: family factors influencing the level of functioning of seriously mentally ill patients living at home.

After the deinstitutionalization of psychiatric hospitals, many families became primary caregivers for seriously mentally ill individuals. Mental health services became further reduced with the advent of managed care and reductions in health and mental health care. The dearth of community-care options often results in psychiatric patients being quickly stabilized in hospital units and discharged to live with their families. The lack of community resources is particularly acute in rural areas. Given these realities the current study sought to determine if family caretaking variables are related to patient outcomes. Family factors including the perception of burden, expressed emotion (EE), and primary caregivers' social support were tested in a model of caretaking that examines the relationship between these factors and patients' symptom expression and social and occupational functioning. The sample includes 49 predominantly African American families living in a rural area and with a chronically ill family member who had been previously diagnosed with a psychotic disorder. Primary caregivers and patients were interviewed using adapted measures of burden, EE, and social support. Patients were administered a revised version of the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale. Results suggest less perceived burden, increased caregiver support and, to a lesser extent, EE explain approximately one-fifth of the variance in patient functioning. These results support previous research demonstrating the importance of family factors for seriously mentally ill patient outcomes. Results are discussed in terms of implications for assisting families in the current era of diminished resources.

Exploring racial disparity in posttraumatic stress disorder diagnosis: implications for care of African American women.

OBJECTIVE: To explore factors contributing to disparities in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) diagnosis between African Americans and White Americans, while controlling for gender and class by using a data set limited to poor women. DESIGN: A cross-sectional epidemiological secondary analysis. SETTING: Michigan Medicaid fee-for-service claims data from 1994 through 1997. SAMPLE: A total of 20,298 African American and White American adolescents and adult women, including 2,996 with PTSD diagnosis. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Victimization, PTSD diagnosis, psychiatric and somatic comorbidities, and PTSD treatment. RESULTS: African American women were under-represented in the group diagnosed with PTSD (12% versus 31% in the comparison group), despite having equal rates of hospitalization for rape and battering. They were less likely to be diagnosed with comorbidities associated with complex PTSD, such as dissociative disorder (OR = 0.259, p < .001) or borderline personality disorder (OR = 0.178, p < .001), but were equally likely to be diagnosed with conduct disorder, schizophrenia, or substance abuse. African American women were 40% less likely to have continuous insurance coverage. CONCLUSIONS: Patient, provider, and system factors appear to interact to create disparities in PTSD diagnosis and treatment. Attention to case finding and provider or system bias may help reduce disparities.

Depression prevalence in disadvantaged young black women--African and Caribbean immigrants compared to US-born African Americans.

BACKGROUND: Research with Mexican Americans suggests that immigrants have lower rates of mental disorders than U. S.-born Mexican Americans. We examine the prevalence of depression, somatization, alcohol use and drug use among black American women, comparing rates of disorders among U. S.-born, Caribbean-born, and African-born subsamples. METHODS: Women in Women, Infants and Children (WIC) programs, county-run Title X family planning clinics, and low-income pediatric clinics were interviewed using the PRIME-MD. In total, 9,151 black women were interviewed; 7,965 were born in the U. S., 913 were born in Africa, and 273 were born in the Caribbean. RESULTS: Controlling for other predictors, U.S.-born black women had odds of probable depression that were 2.94 times greater than the African-born women (p<0.0001, 95% CI: 2.07, 4.18) and 2.49 times greater than Caribbean-born women (p<0.0016, 95% CI: 1.41, 4.39). Likelihood of somatization did not differ among women who were U. S. born, African born, or Caribbean born. Rates of alcohol and drug problems were exceedingly low among all three groups, with less than 1% of the women reporting either alcohol or drug problems. CONCLUSIONS: These results mirror similar findings for Mexican immigrant as compared with American-born Mexican Americans. The findings suggest that living in the U. S. might increase depression among poor black women receiving services in county entitlement clinics. Further research with ethnically validated instruments is needed to identify protective and risk factors associated with depression in immigrant and U. S.-born poor black women.

Racial discrimination and racial identity as risk or protective factors for violent behaviors in African American young adults.

This study examined the influences of racial discrimination and different racial identity attitudes on engaging in violent behavior among 325 African American young adults. The contributions of racial discrimination and racial identity attitudes in explaining violent behavior during the transition into young adulthood while controlling for the influences of prior risk behaviors at ninth grade were examined separately for males and females. In addition, the buffering effects of racial identity attitudes on the relationship between racial discrimination and violent behavior were tested. Results indicated that experience with racial discrimination was a strong predictor of violent behavior, regardless of gender. The centrality of race for males and the meaning others attribute to being Black for both males and females were moderators of the influence of racial discrimination on violent behavior.

Racial identity and academic attainment among African American adolescents.

In this study, the relationships between racial identity and academic outcomes for African American adolescents were explored. In examining race beliefs, the study differentiated among (a) importance of race (centrality), (b) group affect (private regard), and (c) perceptions of societal beliefs (public regard) among 606 African American 17-year-old adolescents. Using cluster analysis, profiles of racial identity variables were created, and these profile groups were related to educational beliefs, performance, and later attainment (high school completion and college attendance). Results indicated cluster differences across study outcomes. Also, the relationships between academic attitudes and academic attainment differed across groups. Finally, the paper includes a discussion on the need to consider variation in how minority youth think about group membership in better understanding their academic development.