Oscillation Characteristics of an Artificial Cochlear Sensory Epithelium Optimized for a Micrometer-Scale Curved Structure.

Based on the modern microelectromechanical systems technology, we present a revolutionary miniaturized artificial cochlear sensory epithelium for future implantation tests on guinea pigs. The device was curved to fit the spiral structure of the cochlea and miniaturized to a maximum dimension of <1 mm to be implanted in the cochlea. First, the effect of the curved configuration on the oscillation characteristics of a trapezoidal membrane was evaluated using the relatively larger devices, which had a trapezoidal and a comparable curved shape designed for high-precision in vitro measurements. Both experimental and numerical analyses were used to determine the resonance frequencies and positions, and multiple oscillation modes were clearly observed. Because the maximum oscillation amplitude positions, i.e., the resonance positions, differed depending on the resonance frequencies in both trapezoidal and curved membrane devices, the sound frequency was determined based on the resonance position, thus reproducing the frequency selectivity of the basilar membrane in the organ of Corti. Furthermore, the resonance frequencies and positions of these two devices with different configurations were determined to be quantitatively consistent and similar in terms of mechanical dynamics. This result shows that despite a curved angle of 50−60°, the effect of the curved shape on oscillation characteristics was negligible. Second, the nanometer-scale oscillation of the miniaturized device was successfully measured, and the local resonance frequency in air was varied from 157 to 277 kHz using an experimental system that could measure the amplitude distribution in a two-dimensional (2D) plane with a high accuracy and reproducibility at a high speed. The miniaturized device developed in this study was shown to have frequency selectivity, and when the device was implanted in the cochlea, it was expected to discriminate frequencies in the same manner as the basilar membrane in the biological system. This study established methods for fabricating and evaluating the miniaturized device, and the proposed miniaturized device in a curved shape demonstrated the feasibility of next-generation cochlear implants.

Notable effects of metal salts on UV-vis absorption spectra of α-, ß-, γ-, and δ-tocopheroxyl radicals in acetonitrile solution. The complex formation between tocopheroxyls and metal cations.

The measurements of the UV-vis absorption spectra of α-, ß-, γ-, and δ-tocopheroxyl (α-, ß-, γ-, and δ-Toc(•)) radicals were performed by reacting aroxyl (ArO(•)) radical with α-, ß-, γ-, and δ-tocopherol (α-, ß-, γ-, and δ-TocH), respectively, in acetonitrile solution including three kinds of alkali and alkaline earth metal salts (LiClO(4), NaClO(4), and Mg(ClO(4))(2)) (MX or MX(2)), using stopped-flow spectrophotometry. The maximum wavelengths (λ(max)) of the absorption spectra of the α-, ß-, γ-, and δ-Toc(•) located at 425-428 nm without metal salts increased with increasing concentrations of metal salts (0-0.500 M) in acetonitrile and approached some constant values, suggesting (Toc(•)···M(+) (or M(2+))) complex formations. Similarly, the values of the apparent molar extinction coefficient (ε(max)) increased drastically with increasing concentrations of metal salts in acetonitrile and approached some constant values. The result suggests that the formations of Toc(•) dimers were suppressed by the metal ion complex formations of Toc(•) radicals. The stability constants (K) were determined for Li(+), Na(+), and Mg(2+) complexes of α-, ß-, γ-, and δ-Toc(•). The K values increased in the order of NaClO(4) < LiClO(4) < Mg(ClO(4))(2), being independent of the kinds of Toc(•) radicals. Furthermore, the K values increased in the order of δ- < γ- < ß- < α-Toc(•) radicals for each metal salt. The alkali and alkaline earth metal salts having a smaller ionic radius of the cation and a larger charge of the cation gave a larger shift of the λ(max) value, a larger ε(max) value, and a larger K value. The result of the DFT molecular orbital calculations indicated that the α-, ß-, γ-, and δ-Toc(•) radicals were stabilized by the (1:1) complex formation with metal cations (Li(+), Na(+), and Mg(2+)). Stabilization energy (E(S)) due to the complex formation increased in the order of Na(+) < Li(+) < Mg(2+) complexes, being independent of the kinds of Toc(•) radicals. The calculated result also indicated that the metal cations coordinate to the O atom at the sixth position of α-, ß-, γ-, and δ-Toc(•) radicals.

Notable effects of the metal salts on the formation and decay reactions of α-tocopheroxyl radical in acetonitrile solution. The complex formation between α-tocopheroxyl and metal cations.

The measurement of the UV-vis absorption spectrum of α-tocopheroxyl (α-Toc(•)) radical was performed by reacting aroxyl (ArO(•)) radical with α-tocopherol (α-TocH) in acetonitrile solution including four kinds of alkali and alkaline earth metal salts (MX or MX(2)) (LiClO(4), LiI, NaClO(4), and Mg(ClO(4))(2)), using stopped-flow spectrophotometry. The maximum wavelength (λ(max)) of the absorption spectrum of the α-Toc(•) at 425.0 nm increased with increasing concentration of metal salts (0-0.500 M) in acetonitrile, and it approached constant values, suggesting an [α-Toc(•)-M(+) (or M(2+))] complex formation. The stability constants (K) were determined to be 9.2, 2.8, and 45 M(-1) for LiClO(4), NaClO(4), and Mg(ClO(4))(2), respectively. By reacting ArO(•) with α-TocH in acetonitrile, the absorption of ArO(•) disappeared rapidly, while that of α-Toc(•) appeared and then decreased gradually as a result of the bimolecular self-reaction of α-Toc(•) after passing through the maximum. The second-order rate constants (k(s)) obtained for the reaction of α-TocH with ArO(•) increased linearly with an increasing concentration of metal salts. The results indicate that the hydrogen transfer reaction of α-TocH proceeds via an electron transfer intermediate from α-TocH to ArO(•) radicals followed by proton transfer. Both the coordination of metal cations to the one-electron reduced anions of ArO(•) (ArO:(-)) and the coordination of counteranions to the one-electron oxidized cations of α-TocH (α-TocH(•)(+)) may stabilize the intermediate, resulting in the acceleration of electron transfer. A remarkable effect of metal salts on the rate of bimolecular self-reaction (2k(d)) of the α-Toc(•) radical was also observed. The rate constant (2k(d)) decreased rapidly with increasing concentrations of the metal salts. The 2k(d) value decreased at the same concentration of the metal salts in the following order: no metal salt > NaClO(4) > LiClO(4) > Mg(ClO(4))(2). The complex formation between α-Toc(•) and metal cations may stabilize the energy level of the reactants (α-Toc(•) + α-Toc(•)), resulting in the decrease of the rate constant (2k(d)). The alkali and alkaline earth metal salts having a smaller ionic radius of cation and a larger charge of cation gave larger K and k(s) values and a smaller 2k(d) value.