Female and male-controlled livestock holdings impact pastoralist food security and women's dietary diversity.

BACKGROUND: Food insecurity is a global problem that requires a One Health approach. As many households in low- and middle-income nations rely on crops and livestock that they produce to meet their household's needs, food security and nutrition are closely linked to the health of animals and the environment. Resources controlled by women are more often allocated to uses that benefit the entire household, such as food, health, and educating children, than men's resources. However, studies of gender control of resources among pastoralist societies are scant. We examined the effect of female and male control of livestock resources on food security and women's dietary diversity among households from one agro-pastoralist and two pastoralist tribes in Iringa Region in south-central Tanzania. METHODS: We conducted surveys with 196 households, which included questions on food availability and food consumption among women, livestock holdings, gender control of livestock and livestock product income, and household demographics, as well as open-ended questions on the use of income. Food availability and food consumption responses were used to construct food security and women's dietary diversity indexes, respectively. We conducted mixed effects logistic regression to analyze how household food security and dietary diversity were associated with livestock and other household variables. We also examined qualitative responses for use of income controlled by women and how the household obtained income when needed. RESULTS: Female-controlled livestock generally supported better household nutrition outcomes. Greater chicken holdings increased the probability of being food secure in pastoralist households but decreased it in agro-pastoralist households, while increasing the probability of having medium-high dietary diversity among all tribes. Male-controlled livestock holdings were not related to food security status. Women used income to supplement food supplies and livestock they controlled as a primary response to unanticipated household needs. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show that female-control of livestock is significantly related to household food security and dietary diversity in pastoralists and agro-pastoralists in rural Tanzania. Importantly, the relationship between food security and dietary diversity differs among tribes for both male and female-controlled livestock, which suggests that blanket policies regarding management of livestock holdings may have unintended consequences. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s42522-020-00032-5.

Prevalence and species distribution of caprine trypanosomosis in Sinazongwe and Kalomo districts of Zambia.

African animal trypanosomosis is one of the key livestock diseases hindering full exploitation of livestock production potential covering 37 countries across sub-Saharan Africa. Many studies have been carried out to investigate the prevalence of the disease in cattle and humans in many tropical African countries but very little attention has been directed towards generating the disease prevalence rates in goats. The current study was conducted between December 2013 and January 2014 to establish the prevalence of caprine trypanosomosis in Sinazongwe and Kalomo districts, southern Zambia. It involved 422 goats which were first examined by palpation for possible enlargement of superficial lymph nodes. Blood samples were then collected from the goats and subjected to laboratory diagnosis using the microscope and Loop Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP). None of the examined goats displayed enlargement of superficial lymph nodes. On microscopy only one goat was found to be positive. The results of investigation using the LAMP method showed that 100 goats were infected with trypanosomes giving an overall prevalence rate of 23.7%. The prevalence of infection in Sinazongwe was 22.4% (n=183) while in Kalomo it was 24.7% (n=239); and the difference between the two districts was statistically significant at 95% CL (x(2)=4.4, df=1, p<0.05). Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanasoma vivax and Trypanasoma congolense were detected in 82.0%, 31.0% and 23.0% of the infected goats, respectively. Mixed infections were detected among 33.0% of the positive samples. The high prevalence rate of trypanosomes detected in the study area confirms the earlier reports that trypanosomosis is re-emerging in the areas previously aerial sprayed by Government. The detection of trypanosomes in naturally infected goats outlines the important role goats play in the epidemiology of African animal trypanosomosis.

Prevalence, Antimicrobial Resistance and Risk Factors for Thermophilic Campylobacter Infections in Symptomatic and Asymptomatic Humans in Tanzania.

The genus Campylobacter comprises members known to be a leading cause of foodborne gastrointestinal illness worldwide. A study was conducted to determine the epidemiology and antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter in humans in Morogoro, Eastern Tanzania. Isolation of Campylobacter from stool specimens adopted the Cape Town protocol. Campylobacter isolates were preliminarily identified by conventional phenotypic tests and subsequently confirmed by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry and polymerase chain reaction. Antimicrobial resistance testing employed the disc diffusion method. A small proportion of the test isolates was also subjected to agar dilution method. Risk factors for human illness were determined in an unmatched case-control study. Thermophilic Campylobacter were isolated from 11.4% of the screened individuals (n = 1195). The agreement between PCR and MALDI-TOF was perfect (κ = 1.0). Symptomatics and young individuals were infected with higher numbers than asymptomatic and adults, respectively. The majority (84.6%) of the isolates were C. jejuni and the remaining were C. coli. Isolates had highest resistance (95.6%) for colistin sulphate and lowest for ciprofloxacin (22.1%). The rates of resistance for other antibiotics (azithromycin, erythromycin, tetracycline, cephalothin, gentamycin, nalidixic acid, ampicillin, amoxycillin, norfloxacin, chloramphenicol) ranged from 44.1% to 89%. Comparison between disc diffusion and agar dilution methods indicated a good correlation, and the tests were in agreement to each other (κ ≥ 0.75). Human illness was found to be associated with young age and consumption of chicken meat and pre-prepared salad. Our data indicate the presence of antibiotic-resistant thermophilic Campylobacter in humans in the study area. There is a need for routine investigation of the presence of the organisms in gastroenteritis aetiology, including determination of their antibiotic susceptibilities.

Genetic diversity among Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense isolates from Tanzania.

We compared 19 stocks of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense collected in 1991 and 1994 from Tanzania with representative stocks from other foci of Rhodesian sleeping sickness in Zambia, Kenya and Uganda. Stocks were characterized by isoenzyme electrophoresis, restriction fragment length polymorphisms in variant surface glycoprotein genes and random amplification of polymorphic DNA; the banding patterns obtained were coded for numerical analysis. In addition, the Tanzanian stocks were compared by pulsed field gel electrophoresis. Overall the Tanzanian stocks formed a homogeneous group and the predominant genotype isolated in 1991 was still present in the 1994 sample, although at a reduced level. The Tanzanian stocks were distinct from representative stocks from other East African foci. This observation does not support the proposal that there are northern and southern strains of T. b. rhodesiense, but is consistent with the view that T. b. rhodesiense stocks form a mosaic of different genotypes varying from focus to focus in East Africa.

The persistence of genetic homogeneity among Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense isolates from patients in north-west Tanzania.

Trypanosomes isolated during 1991 from nine patients with Rhodesian sleeping sickness in north-west Tanzania were genetically characterized by electrophoresis of ten enzymes. Eight isolates were allocated to a known zymodeme (Z306); another had an enzyme profile (Z379) not previously encountered. An example of Z306 has been previously isolated in 1971, nearby in a part of Rwanda adjacent to the border with Tanzania; in addition, a closely related isolate, in Z307, was collected in 1959 from a patient in north-west Tanzania. The new zymodeme (Z379) was 94% similar to Z306, and both had a close similarity of 89% to Z307. All these isolates belonged to the zambezi strain group of related zymodemes, and evidence is presented that other examples of the group have been collected from man in Tanzania since 1959. Such apparent long term genetic stability is similar to circumstances further south in an endemic area of Zambia, where 12 examples of Z306 and two of Z307 were acquired over a period of 12 years from patients. The similar genetic homogeneity among trypanosomes in endemic parts of both Tanzania and Zambia contrasted markedly with the heterogeneity described to the north of Tanzania in that different strain groups circulate in epidemic areas of Kenya and Uganda.

The current epidemiology and control of trypanosomiasis and other zoonoses in Tanzania.

The epidemiology and control strategies of African trypanosomiasis, plague, rabies, brucellosis, anthrax and hydatidosis, the most important and well documented zoonotic diseases in Tanzania, have been described. Bovine tuberculosis, tetanus, taeniosis, trichinosis and tungosis are also endemic in some parts of the country but records of their incidences are not available. Initial outbreaks of trypanosomiasis in Tanzania were caused by Trypanosoma gambiense which originated from West Africa and reached Tanzania via Zaire around 1902. T. rhodesiense which is currently responsible for human trypanosomiasis in Tanzania was introduced from Mozambique around 1910 and quickly spread to many parts of the country. The disease is currently prevalent in the western, north and northwestern parts, the southern highlands and southern regions. Over 6000 cases have reported since 1979. Control strategies against sleeping sickness in Tanzania include chemical control of vectors, treatment of patients with trypanocides and avoidance of humantsetse contact. Plague is mostly endemic in central, northern and north-eastern Tanzania. A total of 8161 cases with 1885 deaths have been recorded since 1890. The disease is currently prevalent in Lushoto district where outbreaks have been experienced since 1980, and in Singida district where it has been endemic since 1918. Integrated control measures are currently applied and were possibly responsible for the 1989 decline of outbreaks in the area. Financial constraints which led to deterioration of control activities from July 1989 probably accounted for the severe outbreaks in 1990/91 which spread to other parts of the country. Rabies is endemic country-wide except in Mtwara, Lindi and Zanzibar. Domestic dogs are the principal transmitters and prompt vaccination and destruction of unvaccinated stray dogs are the main control measures. Brucellosis is widely endemic in livestock and potentially so in humans. Destruction of infected animals, immunisation of susceptible ones, proper boiling of milk and its products and chemotherapy are the currently applied control measures against the disease. Anthrax and hydatidosis are sparsely endemic in the country, and they are mostly controlled by appropriate meat inspection and consequent condemnation and proper disposal of the affected meat. Vaccination and treatment of animals are also effective against anthrax.

Multicentre evaluation of an antigen-detection ELISA for the diagnosis of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense sleeping sickness.

The performance of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (antigen ELISA) for the detection, in serum or cerebrospinal fluid, of an invariant trypanosome antigen to diagnose Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense sleeping sickness was evaluated in four clinical treatment centres. The test, which was carried out in polystyrene test-tubes, was positive in 88 (88.9%) of 99 parasitologically confirmed cases that were tested at the National Institute for Medical Research, Tabora, United Republic of Tanzania; 99 (94.3%) of 105 cases tested at the National Sleeping Sickness Control Programme, Jinja, Uganda; 86 (87.8%) of 98 cases tested at the Uganda Trypanosomiasis Research Organisation, Tororo, Uganda; and 59 (96.7%) of 61 cases tested at the Tropical Diseases Research Centre, Ndola, Zambia. The overall detection rate was 91.5%. There was no cross-reactivity with the agents of the common bacterial, viral, or parasitic diseases prevalent in the areas where the studies were conducted. The only false-positive result involved a blood donor from a trypanosomiasis endemic focus. The test was simple to perform, was read visually, and is therefore a potential tool for diagnosing human African trypanosomiasis.

The baseline susceptibility levels of Chunya Praomys natalensis, the commonest plague reservoir and crop pest in Tanzania, to warfarin.

P. natalensis were live-trapped at Kibwawa (Chunya district) in November 1977 and November 1979. An F3 generation was raised from animals which tolerated 0.025% a.i. warfarin. All three populations were tested using the WHO standard method (WHO/VBC/75.595), with 0.025% warfarin. The populations tested were fully susceptible to the rodenticide, and the latter was well acceptable to the rodents. In this area, warfarin can be successfully used for controlling P. natalensis. Failure to obtain 100% mortality with the 1977-caught wild population was probably due to vigour tolerance. Regular seminars are recommended to train staff in the rodenticide application.