Efficacy-mediated effects of spirituality and physical activity on quality of life: a path analysis.

BACKGROUND: Physical activity has been established as an important determinant of quality of life, particularly among older adults. Previous research has suggested that physical activity's influence on quality of life perceptions is mediated by changes in self-efficacy and health status. In the same vein, spirituality may be a salient quality of life determinant for many individuals. METHODS: In the current study, we used path analysis to test a model in which physical activity, spirituality, and social support were hypothesized to influence global quality of life in paths mediated by self-efficacy and health status. Cross-sectional data were collected from a sample of 215 adults (male, n = 51; female, n = 164) over the age of 50 (M age = 66.55 years). RESULTS: The analysis resulted in a model that provided acceptable fit to the data (χ2 = 33.10, df = 16, p < .01; RMSEA = .07; SRMR = .05; CFI = .94). CONCLUSIONS: These results support previous findings of an efficacy-mediated relationship between physical activity and quality of life, with the exception that self-efficacy in the current study was moderately associated with physical health status (.38) but not mental health status. Our results further suggest that spirituality may influence health and well-being via a similar, efficacy-mediated path, with strongest effects on mental health status. These results suggest that those who are more spiritual and physically active report greater quality of life, and the effects of these factors on quality of life may be partially mediated by perceptions of self-efficacy.

Correlates of functional fitness in older adults.

BACKGROUND: Self-efficacy has been shown to be both an antecedent and determinant of behaviors such as physical activity and may explain variance in the performance of functional tasks among older adults. PURPOSE: The objectives of the current study were: first, to identify potential latent factors of functional fitness (i.e., the ability to perform activities of daily living) among older adults; and second, to determine the extent to which self-efficacy contributed to the variance in functional fitness over and above other known correlates. METHODS: Older adults (n = 190, M age = 69.4 years) completed a functional fitness test battery, maximal graded exercise test, and demographics and self-efficacy questionnaires. RESULTS: Structural equation modeling supported two latent factors of functional fitness representing "Flexibility" and "Physical Power." Further analyses indicated sex as the sole significant correlate of Flexibility. Greater Physical Power was associated with being male, younger, and having higher self-efficacy. CONCLUSIONS: These results support the role of self-efficacy as a correlate of performance on functional tasks. Targeting flexibility and physical power to improve functional fitness among older men and women, respectively, warrants examination.

Assessing walking behaviors of selected subpopulations.

Recent innovations in physical activity (PA) assessment have made it possible to assess the walking behaviors of a wide variety of populations. Objective measurement methods (e.g., pedometers, accelerometers) have been widely used to assess walking and other prevalent types of PA. Questionnaires suitable for international populations (e.g., the International Physical Activity Questionnaire and the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire) and measurement techniques for the assessment of gait patterns in disabled populations allow for the study of walking and its health benefits among many populations. Results of studies using the aforementioned techniques indicate that children are more active than adolescents and adolescents are more active than adults. Males, particularly young males, are typically more active than females. The benefits associated with regular participation in PA for youth and walking for older adults have been well documented, although improvements in the assessments of physical, cognitive, and psychosocial parameters must be made if we are to fully understand the benefits of walking for people of all ages. Most youth meet appropriate age-related PA activity recommendations, but adults, particularly older adults and adults with disabilities, are less likely to meet PA levels necessary for the accrual of health benefits. International studies indicate variation in walking by culture. It is clear, however, that walking is a prevalent form of PA across countries and a movement form that has great potential in global PA promotion. Continued development of measurement techniques that allow for the study of individualized gait patterns will help us add to the already rich body of knowledge on chronically disabled populations and allow for individual prescriptions for these populations.

Neuroanatomical correlates of aging, cardiopulmonary fitness level, and education.

Fitness and education may protect against cognitive impairments in aging. They may also counteract age-related structural changes within the brain. Here we analyzed volumetric differences in cerebrospinal fluid and gray and white matter, along with neuropsychological data, in adults differing in age, fitness, and education. Cognitive performance was correlated with fitness and education. Voxel-based morphometry was used for a whole-brain analysis of structural magnetic resonance images. We found age-related losses in gray and white matter in medial-temporal, parietal, and frontal areas. As in previous work, fitness within the old correlated with preserved gray matter in the same areas. In contrast, higher education predicted preserved white matter in inferior frontal areas. These data suggest that fitness and education may both be predictive of preserved cognitive function in aging through separable effects on brain structure.

Effects of self-efficacy on physical activity enjoyment in college-aged women.

This study examined the effects of exercise self-efficacy on enjoyment of physical activity in a sample of low to moderately active college-aged women (N = 28). Participants were randomized into a low- or high-efficacy condition, and efficacy beliefs for engaging in moderate intensity physical activity were manipulated by providing bogus feedback after a maximal incremental exercise test. All participants completed a 30-min moderate intensity cycling session 2-3 d after the efficacy manipulation. Enjoyment of physical activity was assessed after both the maximal exercise test and the moderate intensity cycling exercise session. Our results indicated that the efficacy manipulation significantly influenced enjoyment of the maximal incremental exercise test. Participants in the low-efficacy condition reported lower enjoyment scores relative to high-efficacy participants following the maximal exercise test. However, enjoyment after the moderate intensity exercise bout did not differ between the two conditions. These results imply that efficacy may be an important influence of physical activity enjoyment, particularly at higher intensities.

Influence of self-efficacy on the functional relationship between ratings of perceived exertion and exercise intensity.

PURPOSE: Rating of perceived exertion (RPE) has been consistently used as a subjective index of exercise intensity for both exercise testing and prescription. Little empirical efforts have been made to determine how psychological factors influence changes in RPE. This study examined the influence of self-efficacy expectations on changes in RPE as a function of exercise intensity. METHODS: Participants were 193 sedentary older adults (mean age = 66.7 years) who completed an assessment of exercise self-efficacy and aerobic capacity. RESULTS: Analyses indicated that RPE during exercise changed in both a linear and a quadratic manner as intensity increased and that self-efficacy was a predictor of both patterns of change. Those high in self-efficacy maintained a constant rate of change in RPE as exercise intensity increased, whereas less efficacious participants exhibited a slower rate of change in RPE as a function of exercise intensity, with an initial gradual curve at lower intensity and a more dramatic trajectory at higher intensity. CONCLUSIONS: Results have important implications for using RPE for exercise prescription in older adults and suggest that exercise self-efficacy is implicated in patterns of RPE change.

Long-term follow-up of physical activity behavior in older adults.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the contribution of social-cognitive factors (self-efficacy and affect) in predicting long-term physical activity in a sample of older adults (N=174). DESIGN: A prospective design assessed physical activity and psychosocial variables at 2 and 5 years following a 6-month randomized, controlled exercise trial. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary outcome variable was self-reported physical activity, with previous behavior, self-efficacy, and affect assessed as determinants of physical activity. RESULTS: Covariance modeling analyses indicated that physical activity at Year 2 was the strongest predictor of physical activity at 5-year follow-up. Both self-efficacy and affect at Year 2 were also associated with physical activity at Year 5, as was original treatment condition. Variables accounted for 35% of the variance in Year 5 activity. CONCLUSION: Older adults with higher levels of physical activity, more positive affect, and higher self-efficacy at Year 2 were more likely to continue to be active at Year 5. This study is one of the longest follow-ups of exercise behavior in older adults and has implications for structuring environments to maximize the maintenance of physical activity.

Physical activity and functional limitations in older women: influence of self-efficacy.

This study examined the role of self-efficacy and physical function performance in the relationship between physical activity and functional limitations. Older women (age, M = 68.2 years) completed measures of physical activity, self-efficacy, physical function performance, and functional limitations at the baseline of an ongoing study. Analyses indicated that physical activity was associated with self-efficacy for exercise, efficacy for gait and balance, and physical function performance. Both measures of efficacy and physical functional performance were associated with functional limitations. Demographic and health status variables did not differentially influence these relationships. Although cross-sectional in nature, our findings suggest that physical activity, self-efficacy, and functional performance may all play a role in reducing functional limitations. Of particular relevance is the fact that both physical activity and self-efficacy represent important, modifiable factors that can enhance function.

Does self-efficacy influence leg muscle pain during cycling exercise?

UNLABELLED: This experiment examined the effect of a manipulation of self-efficacy beliefs on perceptions of leg muscle pain during moderate-intensity cycling exercise among women. Low to moderately active college-age women (n = 28) were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 conditions that were designed to either increase or decrease efficacy beliefs for engaging in moderate intensity physical activity. Efficacy was manipulated based on bogus feedback after a maximal incremental exercise test. Within 2-3 days after the efficacy manipulation, participants completed 30 min of cycling on an ergometer at 60% peak oxygen consumption. Perceptions of leg muscle pain, as well as work rate and oxygen consumption, were recorded during exercise. There was an initial relationship between baseline self-efficacy and pain ratings during a maximal incremental exercise test. Although the provision of bogus feedback was effective for manipulating self-efficacy, there was no differential effect on leg muscle pain intensity ratings during the 30 min bout of moderate-intensity cycling. The results imply that our manipulation of self-efficacy for prolonged exercise does not influence leg muscle pain during moderate-intensity exercise among low to moderately active young females. PERSPECTIVE: We examined the influence of self-efficacy on muscle pain during exercise. Although we did not identify a significant influence of efficacy on pain, our research highlights novel research directions. Future research could potentially help identify self-efficacy as a means of decreasing pain during exercise and ultimately enhancing physical activity participation.

Physical activity and quality of life in older adults: influence of health status and self-efficacy.

BACKGROUND: Physical activity has been positively linked to quality of life (QOL) in older adults. Measures of health status and global well-being represent common methods of assessing QOL outcomes, yet little has been done to determine the nature of the relationship of these outcomes with physical activity. PURPOSE: We examined the roles played by physical activity, health status, and self-efficacy in global QOL (satisfaction with life) in a sample of older Black and White women. METHOD: Participants (N = 249, M age = 68.12 years) completed multiple indicators of physical activity, self-efficacy, health status, and QOL at baseline of a 24-month prospective trial. Structural equation modeling examined the fit of 3 models of the physical activity and QOL relationship. RESULTS: Analyses indicated that relationships between physical activity and QOL, self-efficacy and QOL were all indirect. Specifically, physical activity influenced self-efficacy and QOL through physical and mental health status, which in turn influenced global QOL. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings support a social cognitive model of physical activity's relationship with QOL. Subsequent tests of hypothesized relationships across time are recommended.

Physical activity enhances long-term quality of life in older adults: efficacy, esteem, and affective influences.

BACKGROUND: Physical activity has been effective in enhancing quality of life (QOL) of older adults over relatively short periods of time. However, little is known about the long-term effects of physical activity and even less about the possible mediators of this relationship. PURPOSE: We examined the mediating effects of psychological variables on the relationship between physical activity and global QOL (satisfaction with life) in older adults over a 4-year period. METHODS: Participants (N = 174, M age = 66.7 years) completed a battery of psychosocial measures at 1 and 5 years following enrollment in a 6-month randomized controlled exercise trial. RESULTS: Panel analysis conducted within a covariance modeling framework indicated that physical activity was related to self-efficacy, physical self-esteem, and positive affect at 1 year, and in turn, greater levels of self-efficacy and positive affect were associated with higher levels of QOL. Analyses indicated that changes in physical activity over the 4-year period were related to increases in physical self-esteem and positive affect, but only positive affect directly influenced improvements in QOL. CONCLUSIONS: The findings lend support to the position that physical activity effects on QOL are in part mediated by intermediate psychological outcomes and that physical activity can have long-term effects on well-being.

Physical activity, self-efficacy, and self-esteem: longitudinal relationships in older adults.

We examined the structure of the expanded version of the Exercise and Self-Esteem Model in a sample of older adults (N = 174; age, M = 66.7 years) across a 4-year period. A panel analysis revealed support for the indirect effects of physical activity (PA) and self-efficacy (SE) on physical self-worth and global esteem through subdomain levels of esteem. These relationships were consistent across the 4-year period. Over time, older adults reporting greater reductions in SE and PA also reported greater reductions in subdomain esteem. This is one of the first studies to examine these relationships longitudinally in the PA domain and offers further support for the hierarchical and multidimensional nature of self-esteem at the physical level. We recommend further testing of the Exercise and Self-Esteem Model, with special attention being paid to assessing multiple aspects of PA and SE.

Measuring disability and function in older women: psychometric properties of the late-life function and disability instrument.

BACKGROUND: The recent development of the Late-Life Function and Disability Instrument (LL-FDI) was an important contribution to the measurement of function and disability in older adults. The present study examined the psychometric properties and construct validity of the LL-FDI measure in a sample of older women. METHODS: Older black (n = 81) and white (n = 168) women completed the LL-FDI, several measures of physical function, and physical activity measures, and had their body mass index assessed at baseline of an ongoing prospective study. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) and correlational analyses were used to examine factorial and construct validity of the measure. RESULTS: The CFA, using an iterative model modification technique, resulted in an acceptable 15-item solution for the function component and an 8-item solution for the disability component. This abbreviated instrument demonstrated high correlations with the original scales. Construct validity for the LL-FDI was supported. Participants who demonstrated better physical function, reported being more active, and had lower body mass index reported less disability and less difficulty with function on the LL-FDI. CONCLUSIONS: The LL-FDI appears to be an effective instrument for assessing function and disability in older women, and the abbreviated version reported here may prove useful in certain circumstances due to its brevity. However, continued determination of the construct validity of the complete and abbreviated scales is recommended.

Depressive symptoms among older adults: long-term reduction after a physical activity intervention.

We examined the effects of two physical activity modes on depressive symptoms over a 5-year period among older adults and change in physical self-esteem as a mediator of changes in depressive symptoms. Formerly sedentary, older adults (N = 174) were randomly assigned into 6-month conditions of either walking or low-intensity resistance/flexibility training. Depressive symptoms and physical self-esteem were measured before and after the 6-month intervention, and 12 and 60 months after intervention initiation. Depressive symptoms scores were decreased immediately after the intervention, followed by a sustained reduction for 12 and 60 months after intervention initiation; there was no differential pattern of change between the physical activity modes. Change in physical self-esteem predicted change in depressive symptoms. This study supports the effectiveness of an exercise intervention for the sustained reduction of depressive symptoms among sedentary older adults and physical self-esteem as a potential mediator of this effect.

Physical activity-related well-being in older adults: social cognitive influences.

In this study, the pattern and correlates of physical activity-related well-being in older adults (N = 174; men = 49, women = 125; mean age = 66 years) were examined across a 6-month exercise trial. Baseline levels of self-efficacy fitness, importance of physical activity, and social support and exercise participation across the trial were used as correlates of positive and negative feeling states. Psychological responses to physical activity were assessed on a bimonthly basis across the trial. Latent growth curve analyses indicated significant growth in positive well-being over the 6-month period, with increases reaching a threshold at 4 months. Self-efficacy was inversely related to change in positive well-being across the trial. Frequency of activity and increases in well-being over the trial were significant predictors of self-efficacy at program termination. Findings suggest the social cognitive context of the exercise experience may have influence on exercise-related well-being.