Future Heat Waves in Different European Capitals Based on Climate Change Indicators.

Changes in the frequency and intensity of heat waves have shown substantial negative impacts on public health. At the same time, climate change towards increasing air temperatures throughout Europe will foster such extreme events, leading to the population being more exposed to them and societies becoming more vulnerable. Based on two climate change scenarios (Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5 and 8.5) we analysed the frequency and intensity of heat waves for three capital cities in Europe representing a North-South transect (London, Luxembourg, Rome). We used indices proposed by the Expert Team on Sector-Specific Climate Indices of the World Meteorological Organization to analyze the number of heat waves, the number of days that contribute to heat waves, the length of the longest heat waves, as well as the mean temperature during heat waves. The threshold for the definition of heat waves is calculated based on a reference period of 30 years for each of the three cities, allowing for a direct comparison of the projected changes between the cities. Changes in the projected air temperature between a reference period (1971-2000) and three future periods (2001-2030 near future, 2031-2060 middle future, and 2061-2090 far future) are statistically significant for all three cities and both emission scenarios. Considerable similarities could be identified for the different heat wave indices. This directly affects the risk of the exposed population and might also negatively influence food security and water supply.

Short-term effects of air quality and thermal stress on non-accidental morbidity-a multivariate meta-analysis comparing indices to single measures.

Air quality and thermal stress lead to increased morbidity and mortality. Studies on morbidity and the combined impact of air pollution and thermal stress are still rare. To analyse the correlations between air quality, thermal stress and morbidity, we used a two-stage meta-analysis approach, consisting of a Poisson regression model combined with distributed lag non-linear models (DLNMs) and a meta-analysis investigating whether latitude or the number of inhabitants significantly influence the correlations. We used air pollution, meteorological and hospital admission data from 28 administrative districts along a north-south gradient in western Germany from 2001 to 2011. We compared the performance of the single measure particulate matter (PM10) and air temperature to air quality indices (MPI and CAQI) and the biometeorological index UTCI. Based on the Akaike information criterion (AIC), it can be shown that using air quality indices instead of single measures increases the model strength. However, using the UTCI in the model does not give additional information compared to mean air temperature. Interaction between the 3-day average of air quality (max PM10, max CAQI and max MPI) and meteorology (mean air temperature and mean UTCI) did not improve the models. Using the mean air temperature, we found immediate effects of heat stress (RR 1.0013, 95% CI: 0.9983-1.0043) and by 3 days delayed effects of cold stress (RR: 1.0184, 95% CI: 1.0117-1.0252). The results for air quality differ between both air quality indices and PM10. CAQI and MPI show a delayed impact on morbidity with a maximum RR after 2 days (MPI 1.0058, 95% CI: 1.0013-1.0102; CAQI 1.0068, 95% CI: 1.0030-1.0107). Latitude was identified as a significant meta-variable, whereas the number of inhabitants was not significant in the model.

Endothelial responses of the alveolar barrier in vitro in a dose-controlled exposure to diesel exhaust particulate matter.

BACKGROUND: During the last 250 years, the level of exposure to combustion-derived particles raised dramatically in western countries, leading to increased particle loads in the ambient air. Among the environmental particles, diesel exhaust particulate matter (DEPM) plays a special role because of its omnipresence and reported effects on human health. During recent years, a possible link between air pollution and the progression of atherosclerosis is recognized. A central effect of DEPM is their impact on the endothelium, especially of the alveolar barrier. In the present study, a complex 3D tetraculture model of the alveolar barrier was used in a dose-controlled exposure scenario with realistic doses of DEPM to study the response of endothelial cells. RESULTS: Tetracultures were exposed to different doses of DEPM (SRM2975) at the air-liquid-interface. DEPM exposure did not lead to the mRNA expression of relevant markers for endothelial inflammation such as ICAM-1 or E-selectin. In addition, we observed neither a significant change in the expression levels of the genes relevant for antioxidant defense, such as HMOX1 or SOD1, nor the release of pro-inflammatory second messengers, such as IL-6 or IL-8. However, DEPM exposure led to strong nuclear translocation of the transcription factor Nrf2 and significantly altered expression of CYP1A1 mRNA in the endothelial cells of the tetraculture. CONCLUSION: In the present study, we demonstrated the use of a complex 3D tetraculture system together with a state-of-the-art aerosol exposure equipment to study the effects of in vivo relevant doses of DEPM on endothelial cells in vitro. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first that focuses on indirect effects of DEPM on endothelial cells of the alveolar barrier in vitro. Exposure to DEPM led to significant activation and nuclear translocation of the transcription factor Nrf2 in endothelial cells. The considerably low doses of DEPM had a low but measurable effect, which is in line with recent data from in vivo studies.

Making air quality indices comparable--assessment of 10 years of air pollutant levels in western Europe.

To address the incomparability of the large number of existing air quality indices, we propose a new normalization method that is suited to directly compare air quality indices based on the common European World Health Organization (WHO) air quality guidelines for NO2, O3, and PM10. Using this method, we compared three air quality indices based on the European guidelines, related them to another air quality index based on the relative risk concept, and used them to assess the air quality and its trends in northwest central Europe. The average air quality in the area of investigation is below the recommended European guidelines. The majority of index values exceeding this threshold are caused by PM10, which is also, in most cases, responsible for the degrading trends in air quality. Eleven out of 29 stations tested showed significant trends, of which eight indicated trends towards better air quality.

Redox-sensitivity and mobility of selected pharmaceutical compounds in a low flow column experiment.

In this study a laboratory column experiment under water saturated conditions was conducted to investigate the transport behaviour of the pharmaceutical compounds sulfamethoxazole, carbamazepine, diclofenac, and ibuprofen under varying nitrate concentrations. Organic rich sediment (f(OC)=0.01) and surface water from a formerly investigated field site were used. The water was spiked with the four compounds and the specific redox conditions in the column (0.351 m height) were varied throughout the experiment by adding nitrate in the influent water. Stepwise controlled decreasing influent nitrate concentrations between 131 and 20 mg L(-1) were applied in the course of the experiment which lasted 71 days. This established temporarily denitrifying conditions in the column during the reduction of nitrate. Sulfamethoxazole was severely influenced by this process. During denitrification sulfamethoxazole concentrations in the effluent water decreased rapidly and significantly. This experiment demonstrates the strong dependency of sulfamethoxazole transformation specifically on nitrate reducing redox conditions and therefore may help to explain the wide ranges of reported degradability for this compound. Ibuprofen was more stable under denitrifying redox conditions. Both for carbamazepine and diclofenac apparent retardation was observed. For carbamazepine this was attributed to sorption and also to degradation. For diclofenac nitrate controlled degradation seems the dominating process for the apparent retardation of this compound.

Influence of near-to-nature stormwater management on the local water balance using the example of an urban development area.

Near-to-nature stormwater management aims at replicating the quasi-natural local water balance and preserving the ecosystem's integrity of affected waters. Surface waters in the urban areas of Trier-Petrisberg are managed by a separate sewer system in conjunction with a complex retention system. To investigate the effect of this alternative rainwater management practice on the local water balance, a differentiated discharge and groundwater monitoring network with a high spatio-temporal measurement resolution has been implemented within the watershed. Additional information regarding the proportion and spatial distribution of discharge-generating surfaces was provided through visual interpretation of aerial photographs. As a result of this analysis, groundwater levels were found to not be significantly affected by an increase of local sealed surfaces, and the ecologically-justifiable maximum discharge in the tributary was infrequently exceeded. Regarding further building development and climate change, the hydrological load capacity of the retention basins will provide effective rainwater management, even with respect to increasing precipitation intensities and frequencies.

Concentrations of dissolved herbicides and pharmaceuticals in a small river in Luxembourg.

Urban and agricultural areas affect the hydraulic patterns as well as the water quality of receiving drainage systems, especially of catchments smaller than 50 km(2). Urban runoff is prone to contamination due to pollutants like pesticides or pharmaceuticals. Agricultural areas are possible sources of nutrient and herbicide contamination for receiving water bodies. The pollution is derived from leaching by subsurface flow, as well as wash-off and erosion caused by surface runoff. In the Luxembourgish Mess River catchment, the pharmaceutical and pesticide concentrations are comparable with those detected by other authors in different river systems worldwide. Some investigated pesticide concentrations infringe current regulations. The maximum allowable concentration for diuron of 1.8 µg l( - 1) is exceeded fourfold by measured 7.41 µg l( - 1) in a flood event. The load of dissolved pesticides reaching the stream gauge is primarily determined by the amount applied to the surfaces within the catchment area. Storm water runoff from urban areas causes short-lived but high-pollutant concentrations and moderate loads, whereas moderate concentrations and high loads are representative for agricultural inputs to the drainage system. Dissolved herbicides, sulfonamides, tetracyclines, analgesics and hormones can be used as indicators to investigate runoff generation processes, including inputs from anthropogenic sources. The measurements prove that the influence of kinematic wave effects on the relationship between hydrograph and chemographs should not be neglected in smaller basins. The time lag shows that it is not possible to connect analysed substances of defined samples to the corresponding section of the hydrograph.

Identifying the origins of local atmospheric deposition in the steel industry basin of Luxembourg using the chemical and isotopic composition of the lichen Xanthoria parietina.

Trace metal atmospheric contamination was assessed in one of the oldest European industrial sites of steel production situated in the southern part of the Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg. Using elemental ratios as well as Pb, Sr, and Nd isotopic compositions as tracers, we found preliminary results concerning the trace metal enrichment and the chemical/isotopic signatures of the most important emission sources using the lichen Xanthoria parietina sampled at 15 sites along a SW-NE transect. The concentrations of these elements decreased with increasing distance from the historical and actual steel-work areas. The combination of the different tracers (major elements, Rare Earth Element ratios, Pb, Sr and Nd isotopes) enabled us to distinguish between three principal sources: the historical steel production (old tailings corresponding to blast-furnace residues), the present steel production (industrial sites with arc electric furnace units) and the regional background (baseline) components. Other anthropogenic sources including a waste incinerator and major roads had only weak impacts on lichen chemistry and isotopic ratios. The correlation between the Sr and Nd isotope ratios indicated that the Sr-Nd isotope systems represented useful tools to trace atmospheric emissions of factories using scrap metal for steel production.

Facing hazardous matter in atmospheric particles with NanoSIMS.

Current scientific studies and evaluations clearly show that an increase of urban dust loads, alone or in combination with other air pollutants and certain meteorological conditions lead to different significant health effects. Premature death, increased hospital admissions and increased respiratory symptoms and diseases as well as decreased lung function can be observed in combination with high pollutant levels. Sensitive groups like elderly people or children and persons with cardiopulmonary diseases such as asthma are more strongly affected. Because of the direct contact between fine particles and lung tissue more information concerning the surface structure (mapping of toxic elements) is required. The NanoSIMS 50 ion microprobe is used to image the elemental composition at the surface of submicrometer particles. Imaging the ions of the samples under cesium bombardment identifies the organic and inorganic origins of the grains. Our investigations show that the atmospheric fine dust consists of a complex mixture of organic and inorganic compounds. Heavy metals are fixed on airborne particles in the form of hot spots in a nanometer scale. In regard to the health aspect, the hot spots consisting of toxic elements are particularly relevant as they react directly with the lung tissues.

Screening and scenarios of traffic emissions at Trier, Germany.

SCOPE AND BACKGROUND: In the course of the European Council Directive on permissible air pollutant limit values, valid starting from 2005 there is an urgent call for action, particularly for fine dust (PM10). Current investigations (Junk & Helbig 2003, Reuter & Baumüller 2003) show that the limit values in certain places in congested areas are exceeded. Only if it is possible to locate these Hot Spots purposeful measures to reduce the ambient air pollution can be conducted. For an efficient identification of these Hot Spots numerical computer models or establishing special measurements networks are too expensive. Using the statistical model STREET 5.0 (KTT 2003) a cost-effective screening of the air pollution situation caused by the traffic can be done. METHODS: STREET is based on the 3-dimensional micro-scale non-hydrostatic flow- and dispersion model MISCAM (Eichhorn 1989). The results of over 100.000 different calculations with MISCAM are stored in a Database and used to calculate the emissions with STREET. In collaboration with the city council of Trier more than 150 streets were investigated, mapped, and calculated. A special urban climate measuring network supplies the necessary meteorological input data about the wind field and precipitation events in the valley of the Moselle. Information about road width and road orientation as well as building density was derived from aerial photographs. Traffic censuses and mobile air pollutants measurements supplied the remaining input data. We calculated the mean annual air pollutant concentrations for NO2, CO, SO2, O3, benzene as well as PM10. RESULTS: A comparison of the model results with the values obtained from the stations of the central emission measuring network of Rhineland-Palatinate (ZIMEN, annual report 2002) shows very good agreements. The model was not only used to calculate the annual air pollutant but also for urban planning and management. The absolute level of the air pollutant is mainly dependent on the amount of traffic in the street canyons. Therefore four different case-scenarios with varying quantity of traffic were calculated and interpreted for each street. The results of the calculation show that on the basis of the mean values for both NO2 and benzene, it is not to be expected that the limits PERSPECTIVES: Furthermore the model can be used to find the maximum tolerable numbers of cars for a street without exceeding the air pollutant thresholds.