Sleep in the East African root rat, Tachyoryctes splendens.

The present study reports the results of an electrophysiological analysis of sleep in the East African root rat, Tachyoryctes splendens, belonging to the rodent subfamily Spalacinae. Telemetric electroencephalographic (EEG) and electromyographic recordings, with associated video recording, on three root rats over a continuous 72 h period (12 h light/12 h dark cycle) were analyzed. The analysis revealed that the East African root rat has a total sleep time (TST) of 8.9 h per day. Despite this relatively short total sleep time in comparison to fossorial rodents, nonrapid eye movement (non-REM) sleep and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep states showed similar physiological signatures to that observed in other rodents and no unusual sleep states were observed. REM occupied 19.7% of TST, which is within the range observed in other rodents. The root rats were extremely active during the dark period, and appeared to spend much of the light period in quiet wake while maintaining vigilance (as determined from both EEG recordings and behavioral observation). These recordings were made under normocapnic environmental conditions, which contrasts with the hypercapnic environment of their natural burrows.

Sleep in the Cape Mole Rat: A Short-Sleeping Subterranean Rodent.

The Cape mole rat Georychus capensis is a solitary subterranean rodent found in the western and southern Cape of South Africa. This approximately 200-gram bathyergid rodent shows a nocturnal circadian rhythm, but sleep in this species is yet to be investigated. Using telemetric recordings of the electroencephalogram (EEG) and electromyogram (EMG) in conjunction with video recordings, we were able to show that the Cape mole rat, like all other rodents, has sleep periods composed of both rapid eye movement (REM) and slow-wave (non-REM) sleep. These mole rats spent on average 15.4 h awake, 7.1 h in non-REM sleep and 1.5 h in REM sleep each day. Cape mole rats sleep substantially less than other similarly sized terrestrial rodents but have a similar percentage of total sleep time occupied by REM sleep. In addition, the duration of both non-REM and REM sleep episodes was markedly shorter in the Cape mole rat than has been observed in terrestrial rodents. Interestingly, these features (total sleep time and episode duration) are similar to those observed in another subterranean bathyergid mole rat, i.e. Fukomys mechowii. Thus, there appears to be a bathyergid type of sleep amongst the rodents that may be related to their environment and the effect of this on their circadian rhythm. Investigating further species of bathyergid mole rats may fully define the emerging picture of sleep in these subterranean African rodents.

Cellular location and major terminal networks of the orexinergic system in the brain of two megachiropterans.

The present study describes the distribution of orexin-A immunoreactive neurons and their terminal networks in the brains of two species of megachiropterans. In general the organization of the orexinergic system in the mammalian brain is conserved across species, but as one of two groups of mammals that fly and have a high metabolic rate, it was of interest to determine whether there were any specific differences in the organization of this system in the megachiropterans. Orexinergic neurons were limited in distribution to the hypothalamus, and formed three distinct clusters, or nuclei, a main cluster with a perifornical location, a zona incerta cluster in the dorsolateral hypothalamus and an optic tract cluster in the ventrolateral hypothalamus. The nuclear parcellation of the orexinergic system in the megachiropterans is similar to that seen in many mammals, but differs from the microchiropterans where the optic tract cluster is absent. The terminal networks of the orexinergic neurons in the megachiropterans was similar to that seen in a range of mammalian species, with significant terminal networks being found in the hypothalamus, cholinergic pedunculopontine and laterodorsal tegemental nuclei, the noradrenergic locus coeruleus complex, all serotonergic nuclei, the paraventricular nuclei of the epithalamus and adjacent to the habenular nuclei. While the megachiropteran orexinergic system is typically mammalian in form, it does differ from that reported for microchiropterans, and thus provides an additional neural character arguing for independent evolution of these two chiropteran suborders.

The continuously growing central nervous system of the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus).

It is a central assumption that larger bodies require larger brains, across species but also possibly within species with continuous growth throughout the lifetime, such as the crocodile. The current study investigates the relationships between body growth (length and mass) and the rates of growth of various subdivisions of the central nervous system (CNS) (brain, spinal cord, eyes) in Nile crocodiles weighing between 90 g and 90 kg. Although the brain appears to grow in two phases in relation to body mass, initially very rapidly then very slowly, it turns out that brain mass increases continuously as a power function of body mass with a small exponent of 0.256, such that a 10-fold increase in body mass is accompanied by a 1.8-fold in brain mass. Eye volume increases slowly with increasing body mass, as a power function of the latter with an exponent of 0.37. The spinal cord, however, grows more rapidly in mass, accompanying body mass raised to an exponent of 0.54, and increasing in length as predicted, with body mass raised to an exponent of 0.32 (close to the predicted 1/3). While supporting the expectation formulated by Jerison that larger bodies require larger brains to operate them, our findings show that: (1) the rate of increase in brain size is very small compared to body growth; and (2) different parts of the CNS grow at different rates accompanying continuous body growth, with a faster increase in spinal cord mass and eye volume, than in brain mass.

Nuclear organization of cholinergic, putative catecholaminergic, serotonergic and orexinergic systems in the brain of the African pygmy mouse (Mus minutoides): organizational complexity is preserved in small brains.

This study investigated the nuclear organization of four immunohistochemically identifiable neural systems (cholinergic, catecholaminergic, serotonergic and orexinergic) within the brain of the African pygmy mouse (Mus minutoides). The African pygmy mice studied had a brain mass of around 275 mg, making these the smallest rodent brains to date in which these neural systems have been investigated. In contrast to the assumption that in this small brain there would be fewer subdivisions of these neural systems, we found that all nuclei generally observed for these systems in other rodent brains were also present in the brain of the African pygmy mouse. As with other rodents previously studied in the subfamily Murinae, we observed the presence of cortical cholinergic neurons and a compactly organized locus coeruleus. These two features of these systems have not been observed in the non-Murinae rodents studied to date. Thus, the African pygmy mouse displays what might be considered a typical Murinae brain organization, and despite its small size, the brain does not appear to be any less complexly organized than other rodent brains, even those that are over 100 times larger such as the Cape porcupine brain. The results are consistent with the notion that changes in brain size do not affect the evolution of nuclear organization of complex neural systems. Thus, species belonging to the same order generally have the same number and complement of the subdivisions, or nuclei, of specific neural systems despite differences in brain size, phenotype or time since evolutionary divergence.

Cellular location and major terminal networks of the orexinergic system in the brains of five microchiropteran species.

The present study describes the distribution of Orexin-A immunoreactive cell bodies and terminal networks in the brains of five microchiropteran species. Given the specialized flight and echolocation abilities of the microchiropterans it was of interest to examine if any specific differences in a generally phylogenetically homogenous neural system could be found. The orexinergic neurons have been found within the hypothalamus of all species studied, and were represented by a large cluster that spanned the anterior, dorsomedial, perifornical and lateral hypothalamic regions, with a smaller cluster extending into the region of the medial zona incerta. Evidence for orexinergic neurons in the ventrolateral hypothalamus adjacent to the optic tract was not observed in any microchiropteran species. The terminal networks of the orexinergic neurons conformed to that previously reported in a range of mammalian species, with dense terminal networks being found in the hypothalamus, cholinergic pedunculopontine and laterodorsal tegemental nuclei, the noradrenergic locus coeruleus complex, all serotonergic nuclei, the paraventricular nuclei of the epithalamus and adjacent to the habenular nuclei. Thus, apart from the lack of neurons in the ventrolateral hypothalamus, the orexinergic system of the microchiropterans appears typically mammalian.

Nuclear organization of cholinergic, putative catecholaminergic and serotonergic systems in the brains of five microchiropteran species.

The current study describes, using immunohistochemical methods, the nuclear organization of the cholinergic, catecholaminergic and serotonergic systems within the brains of five microchiropteran species. For the vast majority of nuclei observed, direct homologies are evident in other mammalian species; however, there were several distinctions in the presence or absence of specific nuclei that provide important clues regarding the use of the brain in the analysis of chiropteran phylogenetic affinities. Within the five species studied, three specific differences (presence of a parabigeminal nucleus, dorsal caudal nucleus of the ventral tegmental area and the absence of the substantia nigra ventral) found in two species from two different families (Cardioderma cor; Megadermatidae, and Coleura afra; Emballonuridae), illustrates the diversity of microchiropteran phylogeny and the usefulness of brain characters in phylogenetic reconstruction. A number of distinct differences separate the microchiropterans from the megachiropterans, supporting the diphyletic hypothesis of chiropteran phylogenetic origins. These differences phylogenetically align the microchiropterans with the heterogenous grouping of insectivores, in contrast to the alignment of megachiropterans with primates. The consistency of the changes and stasis of neural characters with mammalian phylogeny indicate that the investigation of the microchiropterans as a sister group to one of the five orders of insectivores to be a potentially fruitful area of future research.

Nuclear organization of cholinergic, putative catecholaminergic and serotonergic systems in the brains of two megachiropteran species.

The nuclear organization of the cholinergic, putative catecholaminergic and serotonergic systems within the brains of the megachiropteran straw-coloured fruit bat (Eidolon helvum) and Wahlberg's epauletted fruit bat (Epomophorus wahlbergi) were identified following immunohistochemistry for cholineacetyltransferase, tyrosine hydroxylase and serotonin. The aim of the present study was to investigate possible differences in the nuclear complement of the neuromodulatory systems of these species in comparison to previous studies on megachiropterans, microchiropterans and other mammals. The nuclear organization of these systems is identical to that described previously for megachiropterans and shows many similarities to other mammalian species, especially primates; for example, the putative catecholaminergic system in both species presented a very compact nucleus within the locus coeruleus (A6c) which is found only in megachiropterans and primates. A cladistic analysis of 38 mammalian species and 82 characters from these systems show that megachiropterans form a sister group with primates to the exclusion of other mammals, including microchiropterans. Moreover, the results indicate that megachiropterans and microchiropterans have no clear phylogenetic relationship to each other, as the microchiropteran systems are most closely associated with insectivores. Thus a diphyletic origin of Chiroptera is supported by the present neural findings.