Predicting and clustering plant CLE genes with a new method developed specifically for short amino acid sequences.

BACKGROUND: The CLV3/ESR-RELATED (CLE) gene family encodes small secreted peptides (SSPs) and plays vital roles in plant growth and development by promoting cell-to-cell communication. The prediction and classification of CLE genes is challenging because of their low sequence similarity. RESULTS: We developed a machine learning-aided method for predicting CLE genes by using a CLE motif-specific residual score matrix and a novel clustering method based on the Euclidean distance of 12 amino acid residues from the CLE motif in a site-weight dependent manner. In total, 2156 CLE candidates-including 627 novel candidates-were predicted from 69 plant species. The results from our CLE motif-based clustering are consistent with previous reports using the entire pre-propeptide. Characterization of CLE candidates provided systematic statistics on protein lengths, signal peptides, relative motif positions, amino acid compositions of different parts of the CLE precursor proteins, and decisive factors of CLE prediction. The approach taken here provides information on the evolution of the CLE gene family and provides evidence that the CLE and IDA/IDL genes share a common ancestor. CONCLUSIONS: Our new approach is applicable to SSPs or other proteins with short conserved domains and hence, provides a useful tool for gene prediction, classification and evolutionary analysis.

Peptide encoding Populus CLV3/ESR-RELATED 47 (PttCLE47) promotes cambial development and secondary xylem formation in hybrid aspen.

The CLAVATA3 (CLV3)/EMBRYO SURROUNDING REGION (ESR)-RELATED (CLE) peptide ligands in connection with their receptors are important players in cell-to-cell communications in plants. Here, we investigated the function of the Populus CLV3/ESR-RELATED 47 (PttCLE47) gene during secondary growth and wood formation in hybrid aspen (Populus tremula × tremuloides) using an RNA interference (RNAi) approach. Expression of PttCLE47 peaks in the vascular cambium. Silencing of the PttCLE47 gene expression affected lateral expansion of stems and decreased apical height growth and leaf size. In particular, PttCLE47 RNAi trees exhibited a narrower secondary xylem zone with less xylem cells/cell file. The reduced radial growth phenotype also correlated with a reduced number of cambial cell layers. In agreement with these results, expression of several cambial regulator genes was downregulated in the stems of the transgenic trees in comparison with controls. Altogether, these results suggest that the PttCLE47 gene is a major positive regulator of cambial activity in hybrid aspen, mainly promoting the production of secondary xylem. Furthermore, in contrast to previously characterized CLE genes expressed in the wood-forming zone, PttCLE47 appears to be active at its site of expression.

Transcriptional regulatory framework for vascular cambium development in Arabidopsis roots.

Vascular cambium, a lateral plant meristem, is a central producer of woody biomass. Although a few transcription factors have been shown to regulate cambial activity1, the phenotypes of the corresponding loss-of-function mutants are relatively modest, highlighting our limited understanding of the underlying transcriptional regulation. Here, we use cambium cell-specific transcript profiling followed by a combination of transcription factor network and genetic analyses to identify 62 new transcription factor genotypes displaying an array of cambial phenotypes. This approach culminated in virtual loss of cambial activity when both WUSCHEL-RELATED HOMEOBOX 4 (WOX4) and KNOTTED-like from Arabidopsis thaliana 1 (KNAT1; also known as BREVIPEDICELLUS) were mutated, thereby unlocking the genetic redundancy in the regulation of cambium development. We also identified transcription factors with dual functions in cambial cell proliferation and xylem differentiation, including WOX4, SHORT VEGETATIVE PHASE (SVP) and PETAL LOSS (PTL). Using the transcription factor network information, we combined overexpression of the cambial activator WOX4 and removal of the putative inhibitor PTL to engineer Arabidopsis for enhanced radial growth. This line also showed ectopic cambial activity, thus further highlighting the central roles of WOX4 and PTL in cambium development.

The Dynamics of Cambial Stem Cell Activity.

Stem cell populations in meristematic tissues at distinct locations in the plant body provide the potency of continuous plant growth. Primary meristems, at the apices of the plant body, contribute mainly to the elongation of the main plant axes, whereas secondary meristems in lateral positions are responsible for the thickening of these axes. The stem cells of the vascular cambium-a secondary lateral meristem-produce the secondary phloem (bast) and secondary xylem (wood). The sites of primary and secondary growth are spatially separated, and mobile signals are expected to coordinate growth rates between apical and lateral stem cell populations. Although the underlying mechanisms have not yet been uncovered, it seems likely that hormones, peptides, and mechanical cues orchestrate primary and secondary growth. In this review, we highlight the current knowledge and recent discoveries of how cambial stem cell activity is regulated, with a focus on mobile signals and the response of cambial activity to environmental and stress factors.

WUSCHEL-RELATED HOMEOBOX4 (WOX4)-like genes regulate cambial cell division activity and secondary growth in Populus trees.

Plant secondary growth derives from the meristematic activity of the vascular cambium. In Arabidopsis thaliana, cell divisions in the cambium are regulated by the transcription factor WOX4, a key target of the CLAVATA3 (CLV3)/EMBRYO SURROUNDING REGION (ESR)-RELATED 41 (CLE41) signaling pathway. However, function of the WOX4-like genes in plants that are dependent on a much more prolific secondary growth, such as trees, remains unclear. Here, we investigate the role of WOX4 and CLE41 homologs for stem secondary growth in Populus trees. In Populus, PttWOX4 genes are specifically expressed in the cambial region during vegetative growth, but not after growth cessation and during dormancy, possibly involving a regulation by auxin. In PttWOX4a/b RNAi trees, primary growth was not affected whereas the width of the vascular cambium was severely reduced and secondary growth was greatly diminished. Our data show that in Populus trees, PttWOX4 genes control cell division activity in the vascular cambium, and hence growth in stem girth. This activity involves the positive regulation of PttWOX4a/b through PttCLE41-related genes. Finally, expression profiling suggests that the CLE41 signaling pathway is an evolutionarily conserved program for the regulation of vascular cambium activity between angiosperm and gymnosperm tree species.

AspWood: High-Spatial-Resolution Transcriptome Profiles Reveal Uncharacterized Modularity of Wood Formation in Populus tremula.

Trees represent the largest terrestrial carbon sink and a renewable source of ligno-cellulose. There is significant scope for yield and quality improvement in these largely undomesticated species, and efforts to engineer elite varieties will benefit from improved understanding of the transcriptional network underlying cambial growth and wood formation. We generated high-spatial-resolution RNA sequencing data spanning the secondary phloem, vascular cambium, and wood-forming tissues of Populus tremula The transcriptome comprised 28,294 expressed, annotated genes, 78 novel protein-coding genes, and 567 putative long intergenic noncoding RNAs. Most paralogs originating from the Salicaceae whole-genome duplication had diverged expression, with the exception of those highly expressed during secondary cell wall deposition. Coexpression network analyses revealed that regulation of the transcriptome underlying cambial growth and wood formation comprises numerous modules forming a continuum of active processes across the tissues. A comparative analysis revealed that a majority of these modules are conserved in Picea abies The high spatial resolution of our data enabled identification of novel roles for characterized genes involved in xylan and cellulose biosynthesis, regulators of xylem vessel and fiber differentiation and lignification. An associated web resource (AspWood, http://aspwood.popgenie.org) provides interactive tools for exploring the expression profiles and coexpression network.

CLE peptide signaling in plants - the power of moving around.

The CLAVATA3 (CLV3)/EMBRYO SURROUNDING REGION (ESR)-RELATED (CLE) gene family encodes small secreted peptide ligands in plants. These peptides function non-cell autonomously through interactions with plasma membrane-associated LEUCINE-RICH REPEAT RECEPTOR-LIKE KINASEs (LRR-RLKs). These interactions are critical for cell-to-cell communications and control a variety of developmental and physiological processes in plants, such as regulation of stem cell proliferation and differentiation in the meristems, embryo and endosperm development, vascular development and autoregulation of nodulation. Here, we review the current knowledge in the field of CLE polypeptide signaling.

The Arabidopsis LRR-RLK, PXC1, is a regulator of secondary wall formation correlated with the TDIF-PXY/TDR-WOX4 signaling pathway.

BACKGROUND: Although a number of leucine-rich repeat receptor-like kinase-encoding genes (LRR-RLKs) have been identified in plants, a functional role has been determined for only a few. Recent studies have demonstrated that an LRR-RLK, PXY/TDR, is important for the process of secondary vascular development. Other studies have indicated that PXY/TDR is unlikely to be the sole LRR-RLK involved in this complex process. RESULTS: In this study, in silico analyses led to the identification of three Arabidopsis LRR-RLK genes (PXY-correlated; PXC1, 2, 3) with transcript accumulation profiles that correlated strongly with several key regulators of vascular development, including PXY/TDR, HB-8, REV, and CLE41. Expression profiling using qPCR and promoter:reporter lines indicated that all three PXC genes are associated with the vasculature. One in particular, PXC1 (At2g36570), had a strong correlation with PXY/TDR. Shifting pxc1 mutants from long-days to short-days showed that loss of the gene led to a dramatic reduction in secondary wall formation in xylem fibers. Transcript analysis of mutants for a variety of secondary cell wall-associated genes, including PXY/TDR indicated that the pathways mediated by PXC1 connect with those mediated by the TDIF-PXY/TDR-WOX4 system. CONCLUSIONS: The data indicate that the LRR-RLK, PXC1 is involved in secondary cell wall formation in xylem fibers. Whereas further study is needed to identify the ligands and mode of action of the PXC1 protein, it is clear from this work that similarly to the shoot apical meristem (SAM), secondary vascular development requires contributions from a number of LRR-RLKs.

The Norway spruce genome sequence and conifer genome evolution.

Conifers have dominated forests for more than 200 million years and are of huge ecological and economic importance. Here we present the draft assembly of the 20-gigabase genome of Norway spruce (Picea abies), the first available for any gymnosperm. The number of well-supported genes (28,354) is similar to the >100 times smaller genome of Arabidopsis thaliana, and there is no evidence of a recent whole-genome duplication in the gymnosperm lineage. Instead, the large genome size seems to result from the slow and steady accumulation of a diverse set of long-terminal repeat transposable elements, possibly owing to the lack of an efficient elimination mechanism. Comparative sequencing of Pinus sylvestris, Abies sibirica, Juniperus communis, Taxus baccata and Gnetum gnemon reveals that the transposable element diversity is shared among extant conifers. Expression of 24-nucleotide small RNAs, previously implicated in transposable element silencing, is tissue-specific and much lower than in other plants. We further identify numerous long (>10,000 base pairs) introns, gene-like fragments, uncharacterized long non-coding RNAs and short RNAs. This opens up new genomic avenues for conifer forestry and breeding.