Post-migration HIV acquisition among african immigrants in the U.S.

BACKGROUND: African immigrants in the U.S. are more likely to have a late HIV diagnosis than U.S.-born people, potentially leading to onward transmission. We sought to determine the proportion of African-born people living with HIV (APLWH) who (1) had tested HIV negative prior to diagnosis, and (2) likely acquired HIV in the U.S. METHODS: We interviewed APLWH from 2014 to 2017 and estimated the proportion with post-migration HIV acquisition based on clinical data, HIV testing history, immigration date, and behavioral data. RESULTS: Of 179 participants, 113 (63%) were women. Less than half (44%) reported a negative HIV test prior to diagnosis. Among 142 (79%) participants with sufficient data to evaluate post-migration HIV acquisition, we estimate that 29% acquired HIV post-migration. Most APLWH acquire HIV prior to immigration. DISCUSSION: Approximately one-quarter of APLWH acquire HIV post-migration and HIV testing is infrequent, highlighting the need for prevention efforts for African immigrants in the U.S.

The Hepatitis C Virus Care Continuum: Linkage to Hepatitis C Virus Care and Treatment Among Patients at an Urban Health Network, Philadelphia, PA.

Improving care and treatment for persons infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV) can reduce HCV-related morbidity and mortality. Our primary objective was to examine the HCV care continuum among patients receiving care at five federally qualified health centers (FQHCs) in Philadelphia, PA, where a testing and linkage to care program had been established. Among the five FQHCs, one served a homeless population, two served public housing residents, one served a majority Hispanic population, and the last, a "test and treat" site, also provided HCV treatment to patients. We analyzed data from electronic health records of patients tested for HCV antibody from 2012 to 2016 and calculated the percentage of patients across nine steps of the HCV care continuum ranging from diagnosis to cure. We further explored factors associated with successful patient navigation through two steps of the continuum using multivariable logistic regression. Of 885 chronically infected patients, 92.2% received their RNA-positive result, 82.7% were referred to an HCV provider, 69.4% were medically evaluated by the provider, 55.3% underwent liver disease staging, 15.0% initiated treatment, 12.0% completed treatment, 8.7% were assessed for sustained virologic response (SVR), and 8.0% achieved SVR. Regression results revealed that test and treat site patients were significantly more likely to be medically evaluated (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 2.76; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.82-4.17) and to undergo liver disease staging (aOR, 1.92; 95% CI, 1.02-2.86) than patients at the other FQHCs combined. Conclusion: In this US urban setting, over two thirds of HCV-infected patients were linked to care; although treatment uptake was low overall, it was highest at the test and treat site; scaling up treatment services in HCV testing settings will be vital to improve the HCV care continuum.

Engaging United States Black Communities in HIV Pre-exposure Prophylaxis: Analysis of a PrEP Engagement Cascade.

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE: National PrEP utilization analyses show US non-Hispanic Blacks accessing PrEP at disproportionately low rates given the higher HIV prevalence among Blacks, and in comparison to utilization by non-Hispanic Whites. Women also are underrepresented among PrEP utilizers, especially Black women. We examine the process of accessing PrEP for a majority Black population in an urban community health center setting. METHODS: In the Philadelphia city health centers, patients referred for PrEP were followed through six steps of accessing PrEP: referral, patient contact by a PrEP team, maintained interest by patients, scheduling of screening appointments, attending screening appointments, and initiating PrEP. Chi-squared tests were performed at each stage to identify gender differences in drop-off at each step. RESULTS: Between August 2014 and December 2015, 14% of 785 patients referred for PrEP initiated. Women constituted 37.8% of referrals. A smaller majority of Blacks initiated (84.6% of females, 69.5% of males) than were referred (94.5% of females, 88.1% of males). Prior knowledge of PrEP was associated with screening (68% of those with prior knowledge screened, compared with 29.6% of those without prior knowledge,Χ2 p<0.0001). Higher initiation:referral ratios were noted for self-referrals, and for those referred by clinicians, peers and partners. CONCLUSIONS: In a diverse cohort in a community health center setting, myriad barriers resulted in a 14% initiation rate for persons at elevated risk for HIV who were referred for PrEP. These barriers led to disproportionately fewer non-Hispanic Blacks and women initiating PrEP. Efforts to better engage Blacks and women in PrEP care are urgently needed, and may include better dissemination of PrEP-related information in Black communities and to women, and training of clinicians serving Black and female populations to improve competency in provision of PrEP care.

Engaging African and Caribbean Immigrants in HIV Testing and Care in a Large US City: Lessons Learned from the African Diaspora Health Initiative.

The lifting in 2010 of the HIV entry ban eliminated an access point for HIV testing of the foreign-born. The African Diaspora Health Initiative (ADHI) was developed to examine alternative pathways to testing for African and Caribbean persons. The ADHI consists of Clinics Without Walls (CWW) held in community settings. HIV testing is offered to participants along with hypertension and diabetes screening. A survey is administered to participants. Descriptive data were analyzed using SAS 9.2. Between 2011 and 2015, 4152 African and Caribbean individuals participated in 352 CWW. Participants were mostly (67.7 %) African. HIV rates were lowest in Caribbean women (0.4 %) and highest in Caribbean men (8.4 %). Efforts to engage African and Caribbean communities in HIV testing are important given the elimination of the HIV entry ban and continued immigration to the US from areas of higher prevalence. The ADHI offers a successful model of engagement.

Integrating Routine HCV Testing in Primary Care: Lessons Learned from Five Federally Qualified Health Centers in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 2012-2014.

OBJECTIVE: An estimated 2.7-3.9 million Americans are infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV). Despite being the most common blood-borne virus in the United States, routine HCV testing is not commonly practiced. To address this gap, we measured the impact of integrated routine HCV testing on patient care. METHODS: As part of CDC's Hepatitis Testing and Linkage to Care initiative, which promoted viral hepatitis B and hepatitis C screening, posttest counseling, and linkage to care at 34 U.S. sites, National Nursing Centers Consortium integrated a routine opt-out HCV testing and linkage-to-care model at five federally qualified health centers in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from October 1, 2012, to June 30, 2014. The model included medical assistant-initiated testing, reflex laboratory-based HCV tests, and electronic health record modifications to prompt, track, and facilitate reimbursement for tests performed on uninsured patients. RESULTS: During the study period, 4,207 unique patients received HCV antibody (anti-HCV) testing, of whom 488 (11.6%) tested anti-HCV positive. Of those testing positive, 433 (88.7%) received a confirmatory HCV RNA test; of these 433 recipients, 313 (72.3%) were diagnosed with current infection (overall prevalence = 7.4%), of which 243 (77.6%) received their HCV RNA-positive results, 184 (58.8%) were referred to an HCV care provider, and 121 (38.7%) were linked to care. The highest rates of current infection were among non-Hispanic white patients (18.1%, 90/496); patients from the Public Health Management Corporation Care Clinic, which treats HIV and HCV patients on-site (14.3%, 200/1,394); and patients aged 50-69 years (10.7%, 189/1,767). CONCLUSION: Our model successfully integrated HCV testing and linkage to care into routine primary care. This study also identified potential successes and barriers that may be experienced by other primary care health centers that are integrating HCV testing.

Attitudes Toward HIV Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis in a United States Urban Clinic Population.

A majority of US studies on attitudes toward PrEP focus on men who have sex with men with little representation of African Americans. This cross-sectional study seeks to determine openness to PrEP, and examine motivations for openness among Philadelphia residents. Patients undergoing HIV rapid testing between May 2012 and December 2014 in a public setting were administered a survey. Questions included openness to PrEP and reasons for openness to PrEP. Multivariate logistic regression models were used to investigate associations between openness and potential predictors. Analyses were conducted using R version 3.2.4 and the epitools and car packages. Of 5606 respondents, over 90 % were African American. Men were more likely to express openness (61.4 % of men, 54.8 % of women, p < 0.0001). Predictors of openness were younger age, black race, higher perceived risk for HIV by patient or as assessed by Tester, intermittent /no condom use, greater number of partners in 12 months and previous HIV testing. The main reason for openness was fear of HIV, and for disinterest was lack of recognition of risk. Understanding openness to PrEP, and reasons for openness to or disinterest in PrEP are critical to determining the best approaches to facilitate engagement in PrEP care by communities and persons at elevated risk for HIV acquisition. Further study is needed on how best to manage disinterest in PrEP by those at high risk for HIV, and how openness to PrEP translates into concrete steps to take PrEP.

Dual-Routine HCV/HIV Testing: Seroprevalence and Linkage to Care in Four Community Health Centers in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

OBJECTIVE: Despite common risk factors, screening for hepatitis C virus (HCV) and HIV at the same time as part of routine medical care (dual-routine HCV/HIV testing) is not commonly implemented in the United States. This study examined improvements in feasibility of implementation, screening increase, and linkage to care when a dual-routine HCV/HIV testing model was integrated into routine primary care. METHODS: National Nursing Centers Consortium implemented a dual-routine HCV/HIV testing model at four community health centers in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on September 1, 2013. Routine HCV and opt-out HIV testing replaced the routine HCV and opt-in HIV testing model through medical assistant-led, laboratory-based testing and electronic medical record modification to prompt, track, report, and facilitate reimbursement for tests performed on uninsured individuals. This study examined testing, seropositivity, and linkage-to-care comparison data for the nine months before (December 1, 2012-August 31, 2013) and after (September 1, 2013-May 31, 2014) implementation of the dual-routine HCV/HIV testing model. RESULTS: A total of 1,526 HCV and 1,731 HIV tests were performed before, and 1,888 HCV and 3,890 HIV tests were performed after dual-routine testing implementation, resulting in a 23.7% increase in HCV tests and a 124.7% increase in HIV tests. A total of 70 currently HCV-infected and four new HIV-seropositive patients vs. 101 HCV-infected and 13 new HIV-seropositive patients were identified during these two periods, representing increases of 44.3% for HCV antibody-positive and RNA-positive tests and 225.0% for HIV-positive tests. Linkage to care increased from 27 currently infected HCV--positive and one HIV-positive patient pre-dual-routine testing to 39 HCV--positive and nine HIV-positive patients post-dual-routine testing. CONCLUSION: The dual-routine HCV/HIV testing model shows that integrating dual-routine testing in a primary care setting is possible and leads to increased HCV and HIV screening, enhanced seropositivity diagnosis, and improved linkage to care.

Identification and Linkage to Care of HCV-Infected Persons in Five Health Centers - Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 2012-2014.

Approximately three million persons in the United States are infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV), a blood-borne pathogen that is an increasing cause of liver disease and mortality in the United States. Treatments for HCV are curative, of short duration, and have few associated side effects, increasing the importance of identifying HCV-infected persons. Many persons with HCV infection were infected decades ago, before implementation of prevention measures and most are unaware of their infection, regardless of when it occurred. Most newly diagnosed cases are associated with injection drug use. Persons born during 1945-1965 have a fivefold higher risk of HCV infection than other adults and the highest risk for HCV-related morbidity and mortality. CDC recommends testing for this group, for persons who inject drugs, and others at risk for HCV infection. From October 2012 through July 2014, the National Nursing Centers Consortium (NNCC) carried out a project to integrate routine HCV testing and linkage-to-care in five federally qualified health centers in Philadelphia, PA, that primarily serve homeless persons and public housing residents. During the project period, 4,514 patients across the five centers were tested for HCV. Of these, 595 (13.2%) were HCV-antibody positive and 550 (92.4%) had a confirmatory HCV-RNA test performed. Of those who had a confirmatory HCV-RNA test performed, 390 (70.9%) were identified as having current (i.e., chronic) HCV infection (overall prevalence = 8.6%). Of those currently infected with HCV, 90% were informed of their status, 78% were referred to an HCV care specialist, and 62% went to the referred specialist for care. Replicable system modifications that improved HCV testing and care included enhancements to electronic medical records (EMRs), simplification of HCV testing protocols, and addition of a linkage-to-care coordinator. Findings from this project highlight the need for innovative strategies for HCV testing, care, and treatment, as well as the important role of community health centers in expanding access for patient populations disproportionately affected by HCV infection.

Concurrent sexual partnerships among African American women in Philadelphia: results from a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: African American women are disproportionately affected by HIV/AIDS. Concurrent sexual partnerships may contribute to racial disparities in HIV infection. Little is known about attitudes and practices related to concurrency among African American women, or the social, structural and behavioural factors influencing concurrency. METHODS: We recruited 19 heterosexual African American women engaging in concurrent sexual partnerships from a public clinic in Philadelphia in 2009. We conducted interviews exploring social norms, attitudes and practices about concurrency, and the structural, social and behavioural factors influencing concurrent sexual partnerships, guided by grounded theory. RESULTS: Seventeen women reported one main and one or more non-main partners; two reported no main partners. Many women used condoms more frequently with non-main than main partners, noting they trust main partners more than non-main partners. Social factors included social normalisation of concurrency, inability to negotiate partners' concurrent partnerships, being unmarried, and not trusting partners. Lack of trust was the most commonly cited reason that women engaged in concurrent partnerships. Structural factors included economic dependence on partners, partners' dependence on women for economic support and incarceration that interrupted partnerships. Behavioural factors included alcohol and cocaine use. CONCLUSIONS: Social, structural and behavioural factors strongly influenced these African American women's concurrent sexual partnerships. Many HIV interventions disseminated by the CDC focus largely on behavioural factors and may fail to address the social and structural factors influencing African American women's sexual networks. Novel HIV prevention interventions that address the social determinants of African American women's HIV risks are urgently needed.

African-born men in the United States are diagnosed with HIV later than African-born women.

OBJECTIVE: This paper evaluates gender differences in CD4 cell counts at human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) diagnosis of an African-born population receiving care for HIV infection in a publicly financed clinic setting in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in comparison with a non-African, foreign-born cohort in the same setting. METHODS: Records of foreign-born individuals receiving HIV care at the Philadelphia city health centers between January 2007 and December 2008 were reviewed. Data abstracted included demographics, country of origin, reason for HIV testing, and baseline CD4 cell count. Associations among baseline CD4 cell count, demographic variables and reason for testing were assessed by gender and by world region of origin (African or non-African). RESULTS: During the review period, 107 African patients and 127 non-African patients met inclusion criteria. Mean CD4 cell counts at diagnosis were 263 cells/mm3 for African men and 362 cells/mm3 for African women (p = .055). For other foreign-born individuals, mean CD4 cell counts did not vary by gender. African women were more likely than African men to undergo routine testing in the setting of reproductive health care, while there was no gender difference in rates of reproduction-related testing for non-Africans. CONCLUSIONS: African men in Philadelphia are diagnosed with HIV at a later stage of disease than African women are. This difference is associated with higher rates of routine testing of African women in reproductive health care settings. Efforts to engage African men in the United States in routine HIV testing are urgently needed as part of the national "test and treat" strategy of HIV testing and linkage to care.

African American patient experiences with a rapid HIV testing program in an urban public clinic.

BACKGROUND: Of 1174 new human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) cases diagnosed in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 2008, a total of 771 (66%) were among African Americans. Philadelphia recently introduced a citywide rapid HIV testing program in public clinics. METHODS: We conducted a qualitative study among 60 African Americans undergoing rapid HIV testing in one of Philadelphia's public clinics located in a zip code with high HIV incidence. Employing grounded theory, we used semistructured interviews to assess patients' motivations, perceptions, and clinical experiences with rapid HIV testing. Interviews were transcribed and coded; 20% were double coded to enhance reliability. RESULTS: Primary motivations for undergoing rapid HIV testing included: testing during routine clinical care, presenting for care with symptomatic sexually transmitted infections or opportunistic infections, knowing someone living with HIV/ AIDS, and perceiving oneself at risk for HIV. Most patients reported positive experiences with rapid testing and preferred it to conventional testing because it eliminated the need for return visits and decreased anxiety; however, many expressed concerns about accuracy of rapid HIV testing. Barriers to HIV testing among this population included low self-perceived risk, HIV stigma, and reported homophobia in respondents' communities. CONCLUSION: This rapid testing program was acceptable, convenient, and preferred over conventional HIV testing. Providing educational information about rapid and confirmatory HIV testing may further enhance acceptability of rapid HIV testing in this population. Nationwide expansion of rapid HIV testing in public health centers is an important and acceptable means of achieving President Obama's National AIDS Strategy goals of reducing racial disparities in HIV infection and improving linkage to HIV/AIDS treatment and care services.

Social, structural and behavioral drivers of concurrent partnerships among African American men in Philadelphia.

African Americans face disproportionately higher risks of HIV infection. Concurrent sexual relationships, or sexual partnerships that overlap in time, are more common among African Americans than individuals of other races and may contribute to racial disparities in HIV infection. However, little is known about attitudes, norms and practices among individuals engaged in concurrent partnerships. Little is also known about the processes through which structural, behavioral, and social factors influence concurrent sexual relationships. We recruited 24 heterosexual African American men involved in concurrent sexual relationships from a public health clinic in Philadelphia. We conducted in-depth interviews exploring these men's sexual practices; social norms and individual attitudes about concurrency; perceived sexual health risks with main and non-main partners; and the social, structural, and behavioral factors contributing to concurrent sexual relationships. Twenty-two men reported having one main and one or more non-main partners; two reported having no main partners. Respondents generally perceived sexual relationships with non-main partners as riskier than relationships with main partners and used condoms far less frequently with main than non-main partners. Most participants commented that it is acceptable and often expected for men and women to engage in concurrent sexual relationships. Social factors influencing participants' concurrent partnerships included being unmarried and trusting neither main nor non-main partners. Structural factors influencing concurrent partnerships included economic dependence on one or more women, incarceration, unstable housing, and unemployment. Several men commented that individual behavioral factors such as alcohol and cocaine use contributed to their concurrent sexual partnerships. Future research and interventions related to sexual concurrency should address social and structural factors in addition to conventional HIV risk-taking behaviors.

Low perceived risk and high HIV prevalence among a predominantly African American population participating in Philadelphia's Rapid HIV testing program.

African Americans are disproportionately infected with HIV/AIDS. Despite Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) guidelines recommending routine opt-out testing for HIV, most HIV screening is based on self-perceived HIV risks. Philadelphia launched a rapid HIV testing program in seven public health clinics in 2007. The program provides free rapid oral HIV tests to all patients presenting for health services who provide informed consent. We analyzed demographic, risk behavior, and HIV serostatus data collected during the program between September 2007 and January 2009. We used multivariable logistic regression to estimate the association between behavioral and demographic factors and newly diagnosed HIV infection. Of the 5871 individuals testing for HIV, 47% were male, 88% were African American, and the mean age was 34.7 years. Overall HIV prevalence was 1.1%. All positive tests represented new HIV diagnoses, and 72% of individuals reported testing previously. Approximately 90% of HIV-positive individuals and 92% of individuals with more than five recent sex partners never, or only sometimes, used condoms. Two thirds of individuals testing positive and 87% of individuals testing negative assessed their own HIV risk as zero or low. Individuals reporting cocaine use and ever having a same sex partner both had 2.6 times greater odds of testing positive. Condom use in this population was low, even among high-risk individuals. Philadelphia's program successfully provided HIV testing to many underserved African Americans who underestimate their HIV risk. Our results nevertheless suggest greater efforts are needed to encourage more individuals to undergo HIV testing in Philadelphia, particularly those who have never tested.

Impact of resistance to antiretroviral therapy in the minority community.

The development of resistance to antiretroviral therapies has become a formidable barrier to providing optimal treatment of HIV infection in the United States. The emergence of new mutations resistant to antiretroviral agents and a rise in transmission of resistant viruses contribute to an increased risk of treatment failure. Resistance testing of both treatment-experienced and treatment-naive patients i snow recommended for identification of the most effective treatment regimen; however, resistance testing is not universally available or easily interpreted. Furthermore, poor adherence to a treatment regimen or treatment with less potent antiretroviral agents can lead to exposure of virus to subinhibitory levels of drug and the development of resistance. In this article, we discuss several issues that specifically impact the development and transmission of resistant HIV in patients belonging to ethnic minorities and teh implementation of strategies that will overcome resistance as an obstacle to optimal treatment.

Optimizing care for African-American HIV-positive patients.

The African-American community has been disproportionately affected HIV/AIDS, as noted by higher reported rates of HIV infection, higher proportion of AIDS cases, and more deaths caused by complications of AIDS than whites and other ethnic groups. In addition, epidemiologic trends suggest that African Americans with HIV infection are more often diagnosed later in the course of HIV disease than whites. Numerous reasons account for this disparity, including the lack of perception of risk and knowledge about HIV transmission as well as a delays in HIV testing and diagnosis in the African-American community. Understanding the important considerations in the management of HIV infection in the African-American patient may create awareness among health care professionals and broaden the knowledge of HIV-infected patients within the African-American community.

Female-to-female transmission of human immunodeficiency virus.

We describe a case of female-to-female transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). A 20-year-old African American woman with no obvious risk factors received a diagnosis of HIV infection, and the genotype of the infecting strain closely matched that of the strain infecting her openly bisexual female partner. The route of transmission was probably use of sex toys, used vigorously enough to cause exchange of blood-tinged body fluids.