Repeat Module-Based Rational Design of a Photoswitchable Protein for Light-Driven Control of Biological Processes.

Light-driven control of biological processes using photoswitchable proteins allows high spatiotemporal interrogation or manipulation of such processes, assisting in understanding their functions. Despite considerable advances, however, the wide spread use of optical control has been hampered by a limited repertoire of photoswitchable proteins and a lack of generalized design strategy. Herein, we present a repeat module-based rational design of a photoswitchable protein composed of LRR (Leucine-rich repeat) modules using azobenzene as a photochromic ligand. Our design approach involves the rational selection of a Cß pair between two nearby modules within a convex region and subsequent cross-linking with a photochromic ligand. We demonstrate the general utility and potential of our strategy by showing the design of three target-specific photoswitchable proteins and a light-driven modulation of the cell signaling. With an abundance of LRR proteins in nature, our approach can expand the repertoire of photoswitchable proteins for light-driven control of biological processes.

GradDock: rapid simulation and tailored ranking functions for peptide-MHC Class I docking.

Motivation: The identification of T-cell epitopes has many profound translational applications in the areas of transplantation, disease diagnosis, vaccine/therapeutic protein development and personalized immunotherapy. While data-driven methods have been widely used for the prediction of peptide binders with notable successes, the structural modeling of peptide binding to MHC molecules is crucial for understanding the underlying molecular mechanism of the immunological processes. Results: We developed GradDock, a structure-based method for the rapid and accurate modeling of peptide binding to MHC Class I (pMHC-I). GradDock explicitly models diverse unbound peptides in vacuo and inserts them into the MHC-I groove through a steered gradient descent with a topological correction process. The simulation process yields diverse structural conformations including native-like peptides. We completely revised the Rosetta score terms and developed a new ranking function specifically for pMHC-I. Using the diverse peptides, a linear programming approach is applied to find the optimal weights for the individual Rosetta score terms. Our examination revealed that a refinement of the dihedral angles and a modification of the repulsion can dramatically improve the modeling quality. GradDock is five-times faster than a Rosetta-based docking approach for pMHC-I. We also demonstrate that the predictive capability of GradDock with the re-weighted Rosetta ranking function is consistently more accurate than the Rosetta-based method with the standard Rosetta score (approximately three-times better for a cross-docking set). Availability and implementation: GradDock is freely available for academic purposes. The program and the ranking score weights for Rosetta are available at http://bel.kaist.ac.kr/research/GradDock. Contact: hskim76@kaist.ac.kr. Supplementary information: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Engineering and cytosolic delivery of a native regulatory protein and its variants for modulation of ERK2 signaling pathway.

The modulation of a cell signaling process using a molecular binder followed by an analysis of the cellular response is crucial for understanding its role in the cellular function and developing pharmaceuticals. Herein, we present the modulation of the ERK2-mediated signaling pathway through the cytosolic delivery of a native regulatory protein for ERK2, that is, PEA-15 (phosphoprotein enriched in astrocytes, 15 kDa), and its engineered variants using a bacterial toxin-based delivery system. Based on biochemical and structural analyses, PEA-15 variants with different phosphorylation sites and a high affinity for ERK2 were designed. Semi-rational approach led to about an 830-fold increase in the binding affinity of PEA-15, resulting in more effective modulation of the ERK2-mediated signaling. Our approach enabled an understanding of the cellular function of the ERK2-mediated signaling process and the effect of PEA-15 phosphorylation on its action as an ERK2 blocker. We demonstrated the utility and potential of our approach by showing an efficient cytosolic delivery of these PEA-15 variants and the effective suppression of cell proliferation through the inhibition of the ERK2 function. The present approach can be used broadly for modulating the cell signaling processes and understanding their roles in cellular function, as well as for the development of therapeutics.

Rational design of a ß-glycosidase with high regiospecificity for triterpenoid tailoring.

Triterpenoids with desired glycosylation patterns have attracted considerable attention as potential therapeutics for inflammatory diseases and various types of cancer. Sugar-hydrolyzing enzymes with high substrate specificity would be far more efficient than other methods for the synthesis of such specialty triterpenoids, but they are yet to be developed. Here we present a strategy to rationally design a ß-glycosidase with high regiospecificity for triterpenoids. A ß-glycosidase with broad substrate specificity was isolated, and its crystal structure was determined at 2.0 Å resolution. Based on the product profiles and substrate docking simulations, we modeled the substrate binding modes of the enzyme. From the model, the substrate binding cleft of the enzyme was redesigned in a manner that preferentially hydrolyzes glycans at specific glycosylation sites of triterpenoids. The designed mutants were shown to produce a variety of specialty triterpenoids with high purity.

Design of N-acyl homoserine lactonase with high substrate specificity by a rational approach.

N-Acyl homoserine lactone (AHL) is a major quorum-sensing signaling molecule in many bacterial species. Quorum-quenching (QQ) enzymes, which degrade such signaling molecules, have attracted much attention as an approach to controlling and preventing bacterial virulence and pathogenesis. However, naturally occurring QQ enzymes show a broad substrate spectrum, raising the concern of unintentionally attenuating beneficial effects by symbiotic bacteria. Here we report the rational design of acyl homoserine lactonase with high substrate specificity. Through docking analysis, we identified three key residues which play a key role in the substrate preference of the enzyme. The key residues were changed in a way that increases hydrophobic contact with a substrate having a short acyl chain (C4-AHL) while generating steric clashes with that containing a long acyl chain (C12-AHL). The resulting mutants exhibited a significantly shifted preference toward a substrate with a short acyl chain. Molecular dynamics simulations suggested that the mutations affect the behavior of a flexible loop, allowing tighter binding of a substrate with a short acyl chain.

Rational design of organophosphorus hydrolase with high catalytic efficiency for detoxifying a V-type nerve agent.

V-type nerve agents, known as VX, are organophosphate (OP) compounds, and show extremely toxic effects on human and animals by causing cholinergic overstimulation of synapses. The bacterial organophosphorus hydrolase (OPH) has attracted much attention for detoxifying V-type agents through hydrolysis of the P-S bond. However, low catalytic efficiency of OPH has limited the practical use of the enzyme. Here we present rational design of OPH with high catalytic efficiency for a V-type nerve agent. Based on the model structure of the enzyme and substrate docking simulation, we predicted the key residues that appear to enhance the access of the substrate to the active site of the enzyme, and constructed numerous OPH mutants. Of them, double mutant, L271/Y309A, was shown to exhibit a 150-fold higher catalytic efficiency for VX than the wild-type.

A high-affinity protein binder that blocks the IL-6/STAT3 signaling pathway effectively suppresses non-small cell lung cancer.

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a multifunctional cytokine that regulates immune responses for host defense and tumorigenic process. Upregulation of IL-6 is known to constitutively phosphorylate signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), leading to activation of multiple oncogene pathways and inflammatory cascade. Here, we present the development of a high-affinity protein binder, termed repebody, which effectively suppresses non-small cell lung cancer in vivo by blocking the IL-6/STAT3 signaling. We selected a repebody that prevents human IL-6 (hIL-6) from binding to its receptor by a competitive immunoassay, and modulated its binding affinity for hIL-6 up to a picomolar range by a modular approach that mimics the combinatorial assembly of diverse modules to form antigen-specific receptors in nature. The resulting repebody was highly specific for hIL-6, effectively inhibiting the STAT3 phosphorylation in a dose- and binding affinity-response manner in vitro. The repebody was shown to have a remarkable suppression effect on the growth of tumors and STAT3 phosphorylation in xenograft mice with non-small cell lung cancer by blocking the hIL-6/STAT3 signaling. Structural analysis of the repebody and IL-6 complex revealed that the repebody binds the site 2a of hIL-6, overlapping a number of epitope residues at site 2a with gp130, and consequently causes a steric hindrance to the formation of IL-6/IL-6Rα complex. Our results suggest that high-affinity repebody targeting the IL-6/STAT3 pathway can be developed as therapeutics for non-small cell lung cancer.

Rational design of ornithine decarboxylase with high catalytic activity for the production of putrescine.

Putrescine finds wide industrial applications in the synthesis of polymers, pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and surfactants. Owing to economic and environmental concerns, the microbial production of putrescine has attracted a great deal of attention, and ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) is known to be a key enzyme in the biosynthetic pathway. Herein, we present the design of ODC from Escherichia coli with high catalytic efficiency using a structure-based rational approach. Through a substrate docking into the model structure of the enzyme, we first selected residues that might lead to an increase in catalytic activity. Of the selected residues that are located in the α-helix and the loops constituting the substrate entry site, a mutational analysis of the single mutants identified two key residues, I163 and E165. A combination of two single mutations resulted in a 62.5-fold increase in the catalytic efficiency when compared with the wild-type enzyme. Molecular dynamics simulations of the best mutant revealed that the substrate entry site becomes more flexible through mutations, while stabilizing the formation of the dimeric interface of the enzyme. Our approach can be applied to the design of other decarboxylases with high catalytic efficiency for the production of various chemicals through bio-based processes.

Molecular basis for the role of glucokinase regulatory protein as the allosteric switch for glucokinase.

Glucokinase (GK) is a monomeric allosteric enzyme and plays a pivotal role in blood glucose homeostasis. GK is regulated by GK regulatory protein (GKRP), and indirectly by allosteric effectors of GKRP. Despite the critical roles of GK and GKRP, the molecular basis for the allosteric regulation mechanism of GK by GKRP remains unclear. We determined the crystal structure of Xenopus GK and GKRP complex in the presence of fructose-6-phosphate at 2.9 Å. GKRP binds to a super-open conformation of GK mainly through hydrophobic interaction, inhibiting the GK activity by locking a small domain of GK. We demonstrate the molecular mechanism for the modulation of GK activity by allosteric effectors of GKRP. Importantly, GKRP releases GK in a sigmoidal manner in response to glucose concentration by restricting a structural rearrangement of the GK small domain via a single ion pair. We find that GKRP acts as an allosteric switch for GK in blood glucose control by the liver.

High-throughput screening system based on phenolics-responsive transcription activator for directed evolution of organophosphate-degrading enzymes.

Synthetic organophosphates (OPs) have been used as nerve agents and pesticides due to their extreme toxicity and have caused serious environmental and human health problems. Hence, effective methods for detoxification and decontamination of OPs are of great significance. Here we constructed and used a high-throughput screening (HTS) system that was based on phenolics-responsive transcription activator for directed evolution of OP-degrading enzymes. In the screening system, phenolic compounds produced from substrates by OP-degrading enzymes bind a constitutively expressed transcription factor DmpR, initiating the expression of enhanced green fluorescent protein located at the downstream of the DmpR promoter. Fluorescence intensities of host cells are proportional to the levels of phenolic compounds, enabling the screening of OP-degrading enzymes with high catalytic activities by fluorescence-activated cell sorting. Methyl parathion hydrolase from Pseudomonas sp. WBC-3 and p-nitrophenyl diphenylphosphate were used as a model enzyme and an analogue of G-type nerve agents, respectively. The utility of the screening system was demonstrated by generating a triple mutant with a 100-fold higher k(cat)/K(m) than the wild-type enzyme after three rounds of directed evolution. The contributions of individual mutations to the catalytic efficiency were elucidated by mutational and structural analyses. The DmpR-based screening system is expected to be widely used for developing OP-degrading enzymes with greater potential.

A genetic circuit system based on quorum sensing signaling for directed evolution of quorum-quenching enzymes.

Quorum sensing is a cell-cell communication mechanism that is involved in the regulation of biological functions such as luminescence, virulence, and biofilm formation. Quorum-quenching enzymes, which interrupt quorum-sensing signaling through degradation of quorum-sensing molecules, have emerged as a new approach to controlling and preventing bacterial virulence and pathogenesis. In an effort to develop quorum-quenching enzymes with improved catalytic activities, a genetic circuit system based on acylhomoserine-lactone (AHL)-mediated quorum-sensing signaling was constructed. The genetic circuit system was composed of lux-R, lux-I promoter, beta-lactamase, and beta-lactamase inhibitor, and designed to confer antibiotic resistance on host cells expressing an AHL-degrading enzyme, thereby enabling rapid screening of quorum-quenching enzymes. To demonstrate the utility of the genetic circuit system, we attempted the directed evolution of the AHL hydrolase from Bacillus sp. The genetic circuit system was shown to be effective in screening of quorum-quenching enzymes with high catalytic efficiency. From these results it is expected that the genetic circuit system can be widely used for the isolation and directed evolution of quorum-quenching enzymes with greater potential.