Open Water Swimming in Elite Triathletes: Physiological and Biomechanical Determinants.

This study aimed (i) to analyze the 1500 m open water swimming performance, (ii) to examine the associations between physiological and biomechanical variables with swimming performance, and (iii) to determine which variables can predict swimming performance in triathletes. Fourteen elite triathletes (23.4±3.8 y) performed a 1500 m test in open water swimming conditions. Swimming performance was assessed using World Aquatics Points Scoring, and data were obtained from the 1500 m open water swimming test. Heart rate, end-exercise oxygen uptake (EE˙VO2) and blood lactate concentrations were measured. The initial 250 m of the 1500 m swimming test presented the highest values of biomechanical variables in males (i. e. swimming speed, stroke rate (SR), length (SL), index (SI)). A decrease in SL was observed in the last 250 m in both sexes. Positive association were found between EE˙VO2 (r=0.513; p=0.030), swimming speed (r=0.873; p<0.001) and SI (r=0.704; p=0.002) with swimming performance. In contrast, time constant of the oxygen uptake (r=-0.500; p=0.034) and buoy-turn times (r=-0.525; p=0.027) were negatively associated with performance. SI was the main predictor (R 2=0.495) of open water swimming performance in triathletes. In conclusion, triathletes and coaches must conduct open water training sessions to maximize SI (i. e. swimming efficiency).

Which Strength Manifestation Is More Related to Regional Swimmers' Performance and In-Water Forces? Maximal Neuromuscular Capacities Versus Maximal Mechanical Maintenance Capacity.

PURPOSE: To explore the association of the load-velocity (L-V) relationship variables and ability to maintain maximal mechanical performance during the prone bench-pull exercise with sprint swimming performance and in-water forces. METHODS: Eleven competitive adult male swimmers (50-m front crawl World Aquatics points: 488 [66], performance level 4) performed 1 experimental session. The L-V relationship variables (L0 [ie,  maximal theoretical load at 0 velocity]; v0 [ie, maximal theoretical velocity at 0 load], and Aline [ie, area under the L-V relationship]) and maximal mechanical maintenance capacity were assessed at the beginning of the session. Afterward, sprint swimming performance and in-water force production were tested through a 50-m front-crawl all-out trial and 15-s fully-tethered swimming, respectively. RESULTS: Only v0 presented high positive associations with 50-m time and swimming kinematics (r > .532; P < .046). The L0, v0, and Aline showed very high positive associations with the in-water forces during tethered swimming (r > .523; P < .049). However, the ability to maintain maximal mechanical performance, assessed by the mean velocity decline during the prone bench pull, was only significantly correlated with stroke rate (r = -.647; P = .016) and stroke index (r = .614; P = .022). CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that maximal neuromuscular capacities, especially v0, have a stronger correlation with swimming performance and in-water force production than the ability to maintain maximal mechanical performance in level 4 swimmers.

Determinants of 1500-m Front-Crawl Swimming Performance in Triathletes: Influence of Physiological and Biomechanical Variables.

PURPOSE: To analyze the associations between physiological and biomechanical variables with the FINA (International Swimming Federation) points (ie, swimming performance) obtained in 1500-m front-crawl swimming to determine whether these variables can be used to explain triathletes' FINA points. METHODS: Fourteen world-class, international and national triathletes (10 male: 23.24 [3.70] y and 4 female: 23.36 [3.76] y) performed a 1500-m front-crawl swimming test in a short-course pool. Heart rate (HR), oxygen uptake (V˙O2), and blood lactate concentrations were obtained before and after the test. HR was also measured during the effort. Highest V˙O2 value (V˙O2peak) was estimated by extrapolation. Clean swimming speed, turn performance, stroke rate, stroke length, and stroke index (SI) were obtained by video analysis. RESULTS: Average 1500-m performance times were 1088 (45) seconds and 1144 (31) seconds for males and females, respectively. HR after the effort, V˙O2peak, aerobic contributions, total energy expenditure, energy cost, and turn performance presented moderate negative associations with swimming performance (r ≈ .5). In contrast, respiratory exchange ratio, anaerobic alactic contribution, clean swimming speed, stroke length, and SI were positively related, with clean swimming speed and SI having a strong large association (r ≈ .7). A multiple stepwise regression model determined that 71% of the variance in FINA points was explained by SI and total energy expenditure, being predictors in 1500-m front-crawl swimming. CONCLUSIONS: Swimming performance in triathletes was determined by the athletes' energy demands and biomechanical variables. Thus, coaches should develop specific technique skills to improve triathletes' swimming efficiency.

Analysis of pacing and kinematics in 3000 m freestyle in elite level swimmers.

This study aimed to determine elite swimmers' pacing strategy in the 3000 m event and to analyse the associated performance variability and pacing factors. Forty-seven races were performed by 17 male and 13 female elite swimmers in a 25 m pool (20.7 ± 2.9 years; 807 ± 54 FINA points). Lap performance, clean swim velocity (CSV), water break time (WBT), water break distance (WBD), stroke rate (SR), stroke length (SL) and stroke index (SI) were analysed including and excluding the first (0-50 m) and last lap (2950-3000 m). The most common pacing strategy adopted was parabolic. Lap performance and CSV were faster in the first half of the race compared to the second half (p < 0.001). WBT, WBD, SL and SI were reduced (p < 0.05) in the second half compared to the first half of the 3000 m when including and excluding the first and last laps for both sexes. SR increased in the second half of the men's race when the first and last laps were excluded. All studied variables showed significant variation between the two halves of the 3000 m, the highest variation being obtained in WBT and WBD, suggesting that fatigue negatively affected swimming kinematics.

Middle-distance Front Crawl Determinants When Using a Wetsuit.

Our aim was to establish the determinants explaining the wetsuit advantages in middle-distance swimming efforts. Thirty-one triathletes and open water swimmers performed two 400 m front crawl bouts in a 25 m swimming pool with swim and wetsuits (with 48 h rest in-between). Anthropometric, kinematic and physiological variables were measured and Pearson correlation coefficients and stepwise linear regression analysis were used to determine their relationships. Associations observed in the 400 m front crawl included time improved using wetsuit with swimmers age (r=0.38; p=0.017), cross-sectional area (r=0.33; p=0.034), wetsuit upper limbs thickness (r=-0.49; p=0.010), ΔInternational Swimming Federation Points (r=-0.39;p=0.016), Δstroke rate (SR, r=0.48; p=0.003), Δstroke length (SL, r=-0.39; p=0.015), Δpropelling efficiency (r=-0.37; p=0.019) and Δblood lactate concentrations (r=0.30; p=0.048) in the total sample. In females, associations were found between the time improved and wetsuit upper and lower limbs thickness (both r=-0.78; p=0.011), and in males associations were found between time improved and age (r=0.43; p=0.030), ΔSR (r=0.56; p=0.005) and ΔSL (r=-0.44; p=0.026). Furthermore, 48% of the 400 m front crawl time improved was explained by wetsuit upper limbs thickness and SR changes (total sample), 62% explained by the wetsuit lower limbs thickness (females) and 48% of this enhancement was related to age and SR changes (males). Therefore, faster upper and lower limbs actions and wetsuit upper and lower limbs thickness are beneficial for 400 m front crawl performance improvement.

A new model of performance classification to standardize the research results in swimming.

The level of expertise must be defined for the sample studied when reporting research in sport. Concretely in swimming, apart from the participants' background, the competitive status is based on the level that swimmers participate. Thus, the International Swimming Federation (FINA) points are added to improve the sample level characterization. The aim of this study was two-fold: (1) to assess whether national and regional swimmers from different countries differ in their performance level (based on FINA points), and (2) to propose a model that allows standardizing the research results in swimming. The FINA points of 5876 participants (males = 2962 and females = 2914) in 100 m butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke and freestyle were retrieved from nationals (n = 21) and regionals (n = 44) swimming competitions. One-way analysis of variance was conducted to test the difference in FINA points between swimmers of different countries. Significant disparities (100-350 FINA points; p < 0.001) were observed in national and regional competitions for male and female swimmers among the different countries analyzed. This could lead to misleading conclusions when comparing studies with national or regional swimmers from different countries. In this regard, a new model of performance classification based on national and regional worldwide competition is proposed. This might be used to standardized the swimming research results.Highlights- The current classification of swimmers' status could lead to misleading conclusion when comparing studies from different countries using national or regional swimmers.- The proposed model will allow to better standardize the research results in swimming, aiding to draw more accurate conclusion when comparing results from different studies.

Swimming Warm-Up and Beyond: Dryland Protocols and Their Related Mechanisms-A Scoping Review.

In swimming, the beneficial effects of the in-water warm-up are often undermined by the long transition periods before competition (≥ 20 min). For that reason, studies comparing the effects of in-water warm-ups followed by dryland activities have been conducted in the swimming literature. This has brought conflicting evidence due to large combinations of supervised and unsupervised warm-up procedures used. Therefore, a scoping review was performed to discuss (1) why warm-up strategies are important for competitive swimming; to identify (2) what are the different warm-up approaches available in the literature, and; to establish (3) what are the main conclusions, considerations and gaps that should be addressed in further research to provide clearer guidance for interventions. The search was conducted on PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and SPORTDiscus databases. To be considered eligible, studies must have assessed acute short-term responses of warm-up procedures in swimmers by using randomized controlled trials or pre-post study designs. A total of 42 articles were included in this review. The effectiveness of warm-up responses was evaluated based on the inclusion or not of warm-up, the type of conditioning activity (in-water exercise, in-water exercise combined with dryland or dryland exercise only), its duration, and intensity. (1) Warm-up mechanisms have been mainly related to temperature changes associated to cardiovascular adaptations and short-term specific neuromuscular adaptations. Thus, maintaining muscle activity and body temperature during the transition phase immediately prior to competition could help swimmers' performance; (2) the most common approach before a race usually included a moderate mileage of in-water warm-up (~ 1000 m) performed at an intensity of ≤ 60% of the maximal oxygen consumption, followed by dryland protocols to keep the muscle activity and body temperature raised during the transition phase. Dryland activities could only optimize performance in sprint swimming if performed after the in-water warm-up, especially if heated clothing elements are worn. Using tethered swimming and hand-paddles during warm-ups does not provide superior muscular responses to those achieved by traditional in-water warm-ups, possibly because of acute alterations in swimming technique. In contrast, semi-tethered resisted swimming may be considered as an appropriate stimulus to generate post-activation performance enhancements; (3) nothing has yet been investigated in backstroke, butterfly or individual medley, and there is a paucity of research on the effects of experimental warm-ups over distances greater than 100 m. Women are very under-represented in warm-up research, which prevents conclusions about possible sex-regulated effects on specific responses to the warm-up procedures.

Are the 50 m Race Segments Changed From Heats to Finals at the 2021 European Swimming Championships?

This study explored in the 50 m races of the four swimming strokes the performance parameters and/or technical variables that determined the differences between swimmers who reach the finals and those who do not. A total of 322 performances retrieved from the 2021 Budapest European championships were the focus of this study. The results of the performances achieved during the finals compared to the heats showed that the best swimmers did not excel during the heats, as a significant progression of performance was observed in most of the strokes as the competition progressed. Specifically, combining men and women, the swimmers had in freestyle a mean coefficient of variation (CV) of ∼0.6%, with a mean range of performance improvement (∆%) of ∆ = ∼0.7%; in breaststroke a mean CV of ∼0.5% and ∆ = -0.2%; in backstroke a mean CV of ∼0.5% and ∆ = -0.6%, and; in butterfly a mean CV of ∼0.7% and ∆ = -0.9%. For all strokes, it was a reduction of the underwater phase with the aim of increasing its speed. However, this result was not always transferred to the final performance. In any case, most of the swimmers tried to make improvements from the start of the race up to 15 m. Furthermore, the swimmers generated an overall increase in stroke rate as the rounds progressed. However, a decrease in stroke length resulted and, this balance appeared to be of little benefit to performance.

Biophysical Impact of 5-Week Training Cessation on Sprint Swimming Performance.

PURPOSE: To assess changes in swimming performance, anthropometrics, kinematics, energetics, and strength after 5-week training cessation. METHODS: Twenty-one trained and highly trained swimmers (13 males: 17.4 [3.1] y; 50-m front crawl 463 [77] FINA points; 8 females: 16.7 [1.7] y; 50-m front crawl 535 [48] FINA points) performed a 50-m front-crawl all-out swim test, dryland and pool-based strength tests, and 10-, 15-, 20-, and 25-m front-crawl all-out efforts for anaerobic critical velocity assessment before and after a 5-week training cessation. Heart rate and oxygen uptake (V˙O2) were continuously measured before and after the 50-m swim test (off-kinetics). RESULTS: Performance was impaired 1.9% (0.54 s) for males (P = .007, d = 0.91) and 2.9% (0.89 s) for females (P = .033, d = 0.93). Neither the anthropometrical changes (males: r2 = .516, P = .077; females: r2 = .096, P = .930) nor the physical activities that each participant performed during the off-season (males: r2 = .060, P = .900; females: r2 = .250, P = .734) attenuated performance impairments. Stroke rate and clean swimming speed decreased (P < .05), despite similar stroke length and stroke index (P > .05). Blood lactate concentrations remained similar (P > .05), but V˙O2 peak decreased in females (P = .04, d = 0.85). Both sexes showed higher heart rate before and after the 50-m swim test after 5 weeks (P < .05). Anaerobic metabolic power deterioration was only observed in males (P = .035, d = 0.65). Lower in-water force during tethered swimming at zero speed was observed in males (P = .033, d = 0.69). Regarding dryland strength, lower-body impairments were observed for males, while females showed upper-body impairments (P < .05). CONCLUSIONS: A 5-week training cessation yielded higher heart rate in the 50-m front crawl, anaerobic pathways, and dryland strength impairments. Coaches should find alternatives to minimize detraining effects during the off-season.

Anthropometric Characteristics, Body Composition and Somatotype of Elite Male Young Runners.

The purpose of the present study was to describe the anthropometric characteristics, body composition and somatotype of elite male young runners (EYR), and to compare these variables according to the specialty in which they engaged (middle-distance vs. long-distance). This will enable an anthropometric profile chart to be established for them. Ninety EYR aged 17 to 23 years (18.4 ± 2.0) participated in the study. Athletes were divided into two groups according to the event in which they participated: middle-distance runners (MDR, n = 56) and long-distance runners (LDR, n = 34). Sixteen anthropometric variables were recorded for each participant: Weight, height, eight skinfolds, four girths, and two breadths. Body mass index (BMI), body composition and somatotype were calculated. Comparing MDR with the group of LDR, significant differences were found to exist for height, weight, relaxed upper arm girth, flexed and tensed upper arm girth, total upper arm area, upper arm muscle area, and thigh muscle area. No significant differences were observed in the other variables. MDR are taller, heavier and have larger girths than LDR. Coaches and sports scientists can use the data obtained to better control training, as well as for talent identification and athlete selection.