Genetic Spectrum of Syndromic and Non-Syndromic Hearing Loss in Pakistani Families.

The current molecular genetic diagnostic rates for hereditary hearing loss (HL) vary considerably according to the population background. Pakistan and other countries with high rates of consanguineous marriages have served as a unique resource for studying rare and novel forms of recessive HL. A combined exome sequencing, bioinformatics analysis, and gene mapping approach for 21 consanguineous Pakistani families revealed 13 pathogenic or likely pathogenic variants in the genes GJB2, MYO7A, FGF3, CDC14A, SLITRK6, CDH23, and MYO15A, with an overall resolve rate of 61.9%. GJB2 and MYO7A were the most frequently involved genes in this cohort. All the identified variants were either homozygous or compound heterozygous, with two of them not previously described in the literature (15.4%). Overall, seven missense variants (53.8%), three nonsense variants (23.1%), two frameshift variants (15.4%), and one splice-site variant (7.7%) were observed. Syndromic HL was identified in five (23.8%) of the 21 families studied. This study reflects the extreme genetic heterogeneity observed in HL and expands the spectrum of variants in deafness-associated genes.

Comparative Genomic Mapping Implicates LRRK2 for Intellectual Disability and Autism at 12q12, and HDHD1, as Well as PNPLA4, for X-Linked Intellectual Disability at Xp22.31.

We report a genomic and phenotypic delineation for two chromosome regions with candidate genes for syndromic intellectual disability at 12q12 and Xp22.31, segregating independently in one family with four affected members. Fine mapping of three affected members, along with six unreported small informative CNVs, narrowed down the candidate chromosomal interval to one gene LRRK2 at 12q12. Expression studies revealed high levels of LRRK2 transcripts in the whole human brain, cerebral cortex and hippocampus. RT-qPCR assays revealed that LRRK2 transcripts were dramatically reduced in our microdeletion patient DGDP289A compared to his healthy grandfather with no deletion. The decreased expression of LRRK2 may affect protein-protein interactions between LRRK2 and its binding partners, of which eight have previously been linked to intellectual disability. These findings corroborate with a role for LRRK2 in cognitive development, and, thus, we propose that intellectual disability and autism, displayed in the 12q12 microdeletions, are likely caused by LRRK2. Using another affected member, DGDP289B, with a microdeletion at Xp22.31, in this family, we performed the genomic and clinical delineation with six published and nine unreported cases. We propose HDHD1 and PNPLA4 for X-linked intellectual disability in this region, since their high transcript levels in the human brain substantiate their role in intellectual functioning.

The long and short of the S-locus in Turnera (Passifloraceae).

Distyly is an intriguing floral adaptation that increases pollen transfer precision and restricts inbreeding. It has been a model system in evolutionary biology since Darwin. Although the S-locus determines the long- and short-styled morphs, the genes were unknown in Turnera. We have now identified these genes. We used deletion mapping to identify, and then sequence, BAC clones and genome scaffolds to construct S/s haplotypes. We investigated candidate gene expression, hemizygosity, and used mutants, to explore gene function. The s-haplotype possessed 21 genes collinear with a region of chromosome 7 of grape. The S-haplotype possessed three additional genes and two inversions. TsSPH1 was expressed in filaments and anthers, TsYUC6 in anthers and TsBAHD in pistils. Long-homostyle mutants did not possess TsBAHD and a short-homostyle mutant did not express TsSPH1. Three hemizygous genes appear to determine S-morph characteristics in T. subulata. Hemizygosity is common to all distylous species investigated, yet the genes differ. The pistil candidate gene, TsBAHD, differs from that of Primula, but both may inactivate brassinosteroids causing short styles. TsYUC6 is involved in auxin synthesis and likely determines pollen characteristics. TsSPH1 is likely involved in filament elongation. We propose an incompatibility mechanism involving TsYUC6 and TsBAHD.

Steric Clash in the SET Domain of Histone Methyltransferase NSD1 as a Cause of Sotos Syndrome and Its Genetic Heterogeneity in a Brazilian Cohort.

Most histone methyltransferases (HMTase) harbor a predicted Su(var)3-9, Enhancer-of-zeste, Trithorax (SET) domain, which transfers a methyl group to a lysine residue in their substrates. Mutations of the SET domains were reported to cause intellectual disability syndromes such as Sotos, Weaver, or Kabuki syndromes. Sotos syndrome is an overgrowth syndrome with intellectual disability caused by haploinsufficiency of the nuclear receptor binding SET domain protein 1 (NSD1) gene, an HMTase at 5q35.2-35.3. Here, we analyzed NSD1 in 34 Brazilian Sotos patients and identified three novel and eight known mutations. Using protein modeling and bioinformatic approaches, we evaluated the effects of one novel (I2007F) and 21 previously reported missense mutations in the SET domain. For the I2007F mutation, we observed conformational change and loss of structural stability in Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations which may lead to loss-of-function of the SET domain. For six mutations near the ligand-binding site we observed in simulations steric clashes with neighboring side chains near the substrate S-Adenosyl methionine (SAM) binding site, which may disrupt the enzymatic activity of NSD1. These results point to a structural mechanism underlying the pathology of the NSD1 missense mutations in the SET domain in Sotos syndrome. NSD1 mutations were identified in only 32% of the Brazilian Sotos patients in our study cohort suggesting other genes (including unknown disease genes) underlie the molecular etiology for the majority of these patients. Our studies also found NSD1 expression to be profound in human fetal brain and cerebellum, accounting for prenatal onset and hypoplasia of cerebellar vermis seen in Sotos syndrome.

A microdeletion at Xq22.2 implicates a glycine receptor GLRA4 involved in intellectual disability, behavioral problems and craniofacial anomalies.

BACKGROUND: Among the 21 annotated genes at Xq22.2, PLP1 is the only known gene involved in Xq22.2 microdeletion and microduplication syndromes with intellectual disability. Using an atypical microdeletion, which does not encompass PLP1, we implicate a novel gene GLRA4 involved in intellectual disability, behavioral problems and craniofacial anomalies. CASE PRESENTATION: We report a female patient (DGDP084) with a de novo Xq22.2 microdeletion of at least 110 kb presenting with intellectual disability, motor delay, behavioral problems and craniofacial anomalies. While her phenotypic features such as cognitive impairment and motor delay show overlap with Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease (PMD) caused by PLP1 mutations at Xq22.2, this gene is not included in our patient's microdeletion and is not dysregulated by a position effect. Because the microdeletion encompasses only three genes, GLRA4, MORF4L2 and TCEAL1, we investigated their expression levels in various tissues by RT-qPCR and found that all three genes were highly expressed in whole human brain, fetal brain, cerebellum and hippocampus. When we examined the transcript levels of GLRA4, MORF4L2 as well as TCEAL1 in DGDP084's family, however, only GLRA4 transcripts were reduced in the female patient compared to her healthy mother. This suggests that GLRA4 is the plausible candidate gene for cognitive impairment, behavioral problems and craniofacial anomalies observed in DGDP084. Importantly, glycine receptors mediate inhibitory synaptic transmission in the brain stem as well as the spinal cord, and are known to be involved in syndromic intellectual disability. CONCLUSION: We hypothesize that GLRA4 is involved in intellectual disability, behavioral problems and craniofacial anomalies as the second gene identified for X-linked syndromic intellectual disability at Xq22.2. Additional point mutations or intragenic deletions of GLRA4 as well as functional studies are needed to further validate our hypothesis.

An atypical 12q24.31 microdeletion implicates six genes including a histone demethylase KDM2B and a histone methyltransferase SETD1B in syndromic intellectual disability.

Microdeletion syndromes are frequent causes of neuropsychiatric disorders leading to intellectual disability as well as autistic features accompanied by epilepsy and craniofacial anomalies. From comparative deletion mapping of the smallest microdeletion to date at 12q24.31, found in a patient with overlapping clinical features of 12q24.31 microdeletion syndrome, we narrowed the putative critical region to 445 kb containing seven genes, one microRNA, and one non-coding RNA. Zebrafish in situ hybridization and comprehensive transcript analysis of annotated genes in the panels of human organ and brain suggest that these are all candidates for neurological phenotypes excluding the gene HPD. This is also corroborated by synteny analysis revealing the conservation of the order of these six candidate genes between humans and zebrafish. Among them, we propose histone demethylase KDM2B and histone methyltransferase SETD1B as the two most plausible candidate genes involved in intellectual disability, autism, epilepsy, and craniofacial anomalies. These two chromatin modifiers located approximately 224 kb apart were both commonly deleted in six patients, while two additional patients had either KDM2B or SETD1B deleted. The four additional candidate genes (ORAI1, MORN3, TMEM120B, RHOF), a microRNA MIR548AQ, and a non-coding RNA LINC01089 are localized between KDM2B and SETD1B. The 12q24.31 microdeletion syndrome with syndromic intellectual disability extends the growing list of microdeletion syndromes and underscores the causative roles of chromatin modifiers in cognitive and craniofacial development.

Comparative deletion mapping at 1p31.3-p32.2 implies NFIA responsible for intellectual disability coupled with macrocephaly and the presence of several other genes for syndromic intellectual disability.

BACKGROUND: While chromosome 1 is the largest chromosome in the human genome, less than two dozen cases of interstitial microdeletions in the short arm have been documented. More than half of the 1p microdeletion cases were reported in the pre-microarray era and as a result, the proximal and distal boundaries containing the exact number of genes involved in the microdeletions have not been clearly defined. RESULTS: We revisited a previous case of a 10-year old female patient with a 1p32.1p32.3 microdeletion displaying syndromic intellectual disability. We performed microarray analysis as well as qPCR to define the proximal and distal deletion breakpoints and revised the karyotype from 1p32.1p32.3 to 1p31.3p32.2. The deleted chromosomal region contains at least 35 genes including NFIA. Comparative deletion mapping shows that this region can be dissected into five chromosomal segments containing at least six candidate genes (DAB1, HOOK1, NFIA, DOCK7, DNAJC6, and PDE4B) most likely responsible for syndromic intellectual disability, which was corroborated by their reduced transcript levels in RT-qPCR. Importantly, one patient with an intragenic microdeletion within NFIA and an additional patient with a balanced translocation disrupting NFIA display intellectual disability coupled with macrocephaly. CONCLUSION: We propose NFIA is responsible for intellectual disability coupled with macrocephaly, and microdeletions at 1p31.3p32.2 constitute a contiguous gene syndrome with several genes contributing to syndromic intellectual disability.

Concomitant partial exon skipping by a unique missense mutation of RPS6KA3 causes Coffin-Lowry syndrome.

Coffin-Lowry syndrome (CLS) is an X-linked semi-dominant disorder characterized by diverse phenotypes including intellectual disability, facial and digital anomalies. Loss-of-function mutations in the Ribosomal Protein S6 Kinase Polypeptide 3 (RPS6KA3) gene have been shown to be responsible for CLS. Among the large number of mutations, however, no exonic mutation causing exon skipping has been described. Here, we report a male patient with CLS having a novel mutation at the 3' end of an exon at a splice donor junction. Interestingly, this nucleotide change causes both a novel missense mutation and partial exon skipping leading to a truncated transcript. These two transcripts were identified by cDNA sequencing of RT-PCR products. In the carrier mother, we found only wildtype transcripts suggesting skewed X-inactivation. Methylation studies confirmed X-inactivation was skewed moderately, but not completely, which is consistent with her mild phenotype. Western blot showed that the mutant RSK2 protein in the patient is expressed at similar levels relative to his mother. Protein modeling demonstrated that the missense mutation is damaging and may alter binding to ATP molecules. This is the first report of exon skipping from an exonic mutation of RPS6KA3, demonstrating that a missense mutation and concomitant disruption of normal splicing contribute to the manifestation of CLS.

A microdeletion encompassing PHF21A in an individual with global developmental delay and craniofacial anomalies.

In Potocki-Shaffer syndrome (PSS), the full phenotypic spectrum is manifested when deletions are at least 2.1 Mb in size at 11p11.2. The PSS-associated genes EXT2 and ALX4, together with PHF21A, all map to this region flanked by markers D11S1393 and D11S1319. Being proximal to EXT2 and ALX4, a 1.1 Mb region containing 12 annotated genes had been identified by deletion mapping to explain PSS phenotypes except multiple exostoses and parietal foramina. Here, we report a male patient with partial PSS phenotypes including global developmental delay, craniofacial anomalies, minor limb anomalies, and micropenis. Using microarray, qPCR, RT-qPCR, and Western blot analyses, we refined the candidate gene region, which harbors five genes, by excluding two genes, SLC35C1 and CRY2, which resulted in a corroborating role of PHF21A in developmental delay and craniofacial anomalies. This microdeletion contains the least number of genes at 11p11.2 reported to date. Additionally, we also discuss the phenotypes observed in our patient with respect to those of published cases of microdeletions across the Potocki-Shaffer interval.

Changes in nucleosome position at transcriptional start sites of specific genes in Zea mays mediator of paramutation1 mutants.

Nucleosomes facilitate compaction of DNA within the confines of the eukaryotic nucleus. This packaging of DNA and histone proteins must accommodate cellular processes, such as transcription and DNA replication. The repositioning of nucleosomes to facilitate cellular processes is likely regulated by several factors. In Zea mays, Mediator of paramutation1 (MOP1) has been demonstrated to be an epigenetic regulator of gene expression. Based on sequence orthology and mutant phenotypes, MOP1 is likely to function in an RNA-dependent pathway to mediate changes to chromatin. High-resolution microarrays were used to assay the distribution of nucleosomes across the transcription start sites (TSSs) of ~400 maize genes in wild type and mutant mop1-1 tissues. Analysis of nucleosome distribution in leaf, immature tassel and ear shoot tissues resulted in the identification of three genes showing consistent differences in nucleosome positioning and occupancy between wild type and mutant mop1-1. These specific changes in nucleosome distribution were located upstream as well as downstream of the TSS. No direct relationship between the specific changes in nucleosome distribution and transcription were observed through quantitative expression analysis in these tissues. In silico prediction suggests that nucleosome positioning is not dictated by intrinsic DNA sequence signals in the TSSs of two of the identified genes, suggesting a role for chromatin remodeling proteins in MOP1-mediated pathways. These results also indicate that MOP1 contributions to nucleosome position may be either separate from changes in gene expression, or cooperative with development and other levels of regulation in coordinating gene expression.

Positional cloning of the s haplotype determining the floral and incompatibility phenotype of the long-styled morph of distylous Turnera subulata.

Heterostyly is a plant breeding system occurring in approximately 28 plant families and it has often been used as a model system in plant genetics and evolution. Although heterostyly has been studied for over a century beginning with Charles Darwin, the genes determining floral architecture and incompatibility are still unknown. To identify the genes residing at the S-locus of distylous Turnera subulata, we used a positional cloning strategy and assembled three BAC contigs across the S-locus region. In total, 31 overlapping BAC clones were assembled into contigs 1, 2 and SL. We developed and mapped numerous co-dominant markers from the ends of BAC clones across the S-locus region and assayed X-ray deletion mutants to delimit the region of the contig containing the S-locus. Deletion mapping revealed that a single BAC clone (L22s) within contig-SL contains the s haplotype, while two additional BAC clones (I1 and K15) may contain parts of the dominant S haplotype. Furthermore, we exploited the contigs assembled and investigated the rates of recombination at the S-locus as well as in two regions on either side of the S-locus. We found that recombination rates (estimated in kb/cM) are 2-5 times lower at the S-locus relative to flanking regions, although they are not statistically significant. The present study represents a landmark in the molecular characterization of the S-locus of a heterostylous species. We are now on the verge of identifying the genes that have remained elusive since Darwin's comprehensive study of heterostylous systems more than 125 years ago.