Natural Products and Small Molecules Targeting Cellular Ceramide Metabolism to Enhance Apoptosis in Cancer Cells.

Molecular targeting strategies have been used for years in order to control cancer progression and are often based on targeting various enzymes involved in metabolic pathways. Keeping this in mind, it is essential to determine the role of each enzyme in a particular metabolic pathway. In this review, we provide in-depth information on various enzymes such as ceramidase, sphingosine kinase, sphingomyelin synthase, dihydroceramide desaturase, and ceramide synthase which are associated with various types of cancers. We also discuss the physicochemical properties of well-studied inhibitors with natural product origins and their related structures in terms of these enzymes. Targeting ceramide metabolism exhibited promising mono- and combination therapies at preclinical stages in preventing cancer progression and cemented the significance of sphingolipid metabolism in cancer treatments. Targeting ceramide-metabolizing enzymes will help medicinal chemists design potent and selective small molecules for treating cancer progression at various levels.

Co-Culturing Rat Dorsal Root Ganglion Neurons With Rat Schwann Cells Protects Them Against the Cytotoxic Effects of Silver and Gold Nanoparticles.

Previous studies using monotypic nerve cell cultures have shown that nanoparticles induced neurotoxic effects on nerve cells. Interactions between neurons and Schwann cells may protect against the neurotoxicity of nanoparticles. In this study, we developed a co-culture model consisting of immortalized rat dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons and rat Schwann cells and employed it to investigate our hypothesis that co-culturing DRG neurons with Schwann cells imparts protection on them against neurotoxicity induced by silver or gold nanoparticles. Our results indicated that neurons survived better in co-cultures when they were exposed to these nanoparticles at the higher concentrations compared to when they were exposed to these nanoparticles at the same concentrations in monotypic cultures. Synapsin I expression was increased in DRG neurons when they were co-cultured with Schwann cells and treated with or without nanoparticles. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression was increased in Schwann cells when they were co-cultured with DRG neurons and treated with nanoparticles. Furthermore, we found co-culturing with Schwann cells stimulated neurofilament polymerization in DRG neurons and produced the morphological differentiation. Silver nanoparticles induced morphological disorganization in monotypic cultures. However, there were more cells displaying normal morphology in co-cultures than in monotypic cultures. All of these results suggested that co-culturing DRG neurons with Schwann cells imparted some protection on them against neurotoxicity induced by silver or gold nanoparticles, and altering the expression of neurofilament-L, synapsin I, and GFAP could account for the phenomenon of protection in co-cultures.

Pan HDACi Valproic Acid and Trichostatin A Show Apparently Contrasting Inflammatory Responses in Cultured J774A.1 Macrophages.

This study was initiated as an attempt to clarify some of the apparent conflicting data regarding the so-called anti-inflammatory versus proinflammatory properties of histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACis). In cell culture, typically, chronic pretreatment with the HDACi valproic acid (VPA) and trichostatin A (TSA) exhibits an anti-inflammatory effect. However, the effect of acute treatment with VPA and TSA on the levels of inflammatory cytokines in J774A.1 macrophage cell line is unknown. Therefore, this study investigated the effect of acute treatment with VPA and TSA on levels of key inflammatory cytokines in maximally stimulated J774A.1 cells. J774A.1 macrophages were treated with either VPA or TSA for 1 h (acute treatment), followed by maximal stimulation with LPS + IFNγ for 24 h. ELISA was used to measure the levels of proinflammatory cytokines TNFα, NO and IL-1ß from the culture medium. Acute treatment with VPA showed a dose-dependent increase in levels of all three cytokines. Similar to VPA, TSA also showed a dose-dependent increase in levels of IL-1ß alone. This study sheds new light on the conflicting data in the literature that may partly be explained by acute or short-term exposure versus chronic or long-term exposure to HDACi.

Combination of Biochanin A and Temozolomide Impairs Tumor Growth by Modulating Cell Metabolism in Glioblastoma Multiforme.

BACKGROUND/AIM: Several epidemiological studies have reported the chemopreventive potential of biochanin A, in cancer development and progression. We investigated the anticancer potential of combination of biochanin A and temozolomide against U-87 MG and T98 G [glioblastoma multiforme (GBM)] cells. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We evaluated the effect of biochanin A and temozolomide treatment on cell viability, expression of survival proteins, cell cycle, cell metabolism and mitochondrial function. RESULTS: Enhanced inhibitory effects of the combination treatment were observed on cell viability, expression of cell survival proteins EGFR, p-ERK, p-AKT, c-myc and MT-MMP1, and increased expression of the tumor suppressor, p-p53. Combination treatment also induced arrest in the G1 phase of the cell cycle. A shift in the metabolic phenotype of cells from glycolytic to oxidative phosphorylation was observed on combination treatment and the permeabilized cells showed a significant impairment in complex IV activity. CONCLUSION: Biochanin A significantly enhanced the anticancer efficacy of temozolomide in GBM cells.

Comparison of Glutamate Turnover in Nerve Terminals and Brain Tissue During [1,6-13C2]Glucose Metabolism in Anesthetized Rats.

The 13C turnover of neurotransmitter amino acids (glutamate, GABA and aspartate) were determined from extracts of forebrain nerve terminals and brain homogenate, and fronto-parietal cortex from anesthetized rats undergoing timed infusions of [1,6-13C2]glucose or [2-13C]acetate. Nerve terminal 13C fractional labeling of glutamate and aspartate was lower than those in whole cortical tissue at all times measured (up to 120 min), suggesting either the presence of a constant dilution flux from an unlabeled substrate or an unlabeled (effectively non-communicating on the measurement timescale) glutamate pool in the nerve terminals. Half times of 13C labeling from [1,6-13C2]glucose, as estimated by least squares exponential fitting to the time course data, were longer for nerve terminals (GluC4, 21.8 min; GABAC2 21.0 min) compared to cortical tissue (GluC4, 12.4 min; GABAC2, 14.5 min), except for AspC3, which was similar (26.5 vs. 27.0 min). The slower turnover of glutamate in the nerve terminals (but not GABA) compared to the cortex may reflect selective effects of anesthesia on activity-dependent glucose use, which might be more pronounced in the terminals. The 13C labeling ratio for glutamate-C4 from [2-13C]acetate over that of 13C-glucose was twice as large in nerve terminals compared to cortex, suggesting that astroglial glutamine under the 13C glucose infusion was the likely source of much of the nerve terminal dilution. The net replenishment of most of the nerve terminal amino acid pools occurs directly via trafficking of astroglial glutamine.

Tyrosine phosphorylation of HSC70 and its interaction with RFC mediates methotrexate resistance in murine L1210 leukemia cells.

We previously identified and characterized a 66-68 kDa membrane-associated, tyrosine phosphorylated protein in murine leukemia L1210 cells as HSC70 which is a methotrexate (MTX)-binding protein. In order to further characterize the functional role of HSC70 in regulating MTX resistance in L1210 cells, we first showed that HSC70 colocalizes and interacts with reduced folate carrier (RFC) in L1210 cells by confocal laser scanning microscopy and Duolink in situ proximity ligation assay. The tyrosine phosphorylation status of HSC70 found in the membrane fraction was different from the parental L1210/0 and cisplatin (CDDP)-MTX cross resistant L1210/DDP cells. In MTX-binding assays, HSC70 from L1210/DDP cells showed less affinity for MTX-agarose beads than that of L1210/0 cells. In addition, genistein (a tyrosine phosphorylation inhibitor) significantly enhanced the resistance of L1210/0 cells to MTX. Moreover, site-directed mutation studies indicated the importance of tyrosine phosphorylation of HSC70 in regulating its binding to MTX. These findings suggest that tyrosine phosphorylation of HSC70 regulates the transportation of MTX into the cells via the HSC70-RFC system and contributes to MTX resistance in L1210 cells.

Biochanin A inhibits endothelial cell functions and proangiogenic pathways: implications in glioma therapy.

Malignant gliomas, such as glioblastoma multiforme, are highly vascularized tumors of the central nervous system. A rich network of angiogenic vessels supporting glioma growth is an important therapeutic target in glioma therapy. In the past few years, small molecules have gained interest as multitargeting therapies for cancer. Biochanin A is a small, natural dietary isoflavone known for its anticancer potential. Previously, we have found that biochanin A inhibits invasion in human glioblastoma cells. In this study, we elucidated the antiangiogenic mechanisms of biochanin A using rat brain tumor (C6) and murine brain endothelial (bEnd.3) cells and an ex-vivo chick chorioallantoic membrane model. Biochanin A inhibited endothelial cell functions such as cell viability, migration, and invasion, as analyzed using MTT, scratch wound, and gelatin zymography assays. Activation of proangiogenic proteins (ERK/AKT/mTOR) was inhibited. Biochanin A also inhibited chemical hypoxia-inducible factor-1α and vascular endothelial growth factor in C6 cells. Results of chick chorioallantoic membrane assay showed that biochanin A inhibited blood vessel formation ex vivo. As these results suggest that biochanin A directly targets different facets of angiogenesis in vitro and ex vivo, this study provides a rationale for future preclinical evaluation of its efficacy against angiogenic gliomas.

Direct evidence for activity-dependent glucose phosphorylation in neurons with implications for the astrocyte-to-neuron lactate shuttle.

Previous (13)C magnetic resonance spectroscopy experiments have shown that over a wide range of neuronal activity, approximately one molecule of glucose is oxidized for every molecule of glutamate released by neurons and recycled through astrocytic glutamine. The measured kinetics were shown to agree with the stoichiometry of a hypothetical astrocyte-to-neuron lactate shuttle model, which predicted negligible functional neuronal uptake of glucose. To test this model, we measured the uptake and phosphorylation of glucose in nerve terminals isolated from rats infused with the glucose analog, 2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose (FDG) in vivo. The concentrations of phosphorylated FDG (FDG6P), normalized with respect to known neuronal metabolites, were compared in nerve terminals, homogenate, and cortex of anesthetized rats with and without bicuculline-induced seizures. The increase in FDG6P in nerve terminals agreed well with the increase in cortical neuronal glucose oxidation measured previously under the same conditions in vivo, indicating that direct uptake and oxidation of glucose in nerve terminals is substantial under resting and activated conditions. These results suggest that neuronal glucose-derived pyruvate is the major oxidative fuel for activated neurons, not lactate-derived from astrocytes, contradicting predictions of the original astrocyte-to-neuron lactate shuttle model under the range of study conditions.

Biochanin A reduces pancreatic cancer survival and progression.

Pancreatic cancer has dismally low mean survival rates worldwide. Only a few chemotherapeutic agents including gemcitabine have been shown to improve the survival of pancreatic cancer patients. Biochanin A, an isoflavone, is known to exert an anticancer effect on various cancer types. In this study, we examined the anticancer properties of biochanin A on pancreatic cancer cells. The effect of biochanin A on cellular survival, apoptosis, and proliferation was analyzed using MTT, flow cytometry, and colony formation assay. The effect of biochanin A on pancreatic cancer's mitogenic signaling was determined using western blot analysis. Migration assay and zymography were used to determine biochanin A's effect on pancreatic cancer progression. Biochanin A induced dose-dependent toxicity on pancreatic cancer cells (Panc1 and AsPC-1). It reduced colony formation ability of Panc1 cells and induced dose-dependent apoptosis. Activation of Akt and MAPK was inhibited. Furthermore, the migratory and invasive potential of the cancer cells was also reduced. The results suggest that biochanin A is effective in reducing pancreatic cancer cell survival by inhibiting their proliferation and inducing apoptosis. It affects mitogenic, migratory, and invasive processes involved in cancer progression. These findings may lead to novel approaches to treat pancreatic cancer using isoflavones in combination with other therapeutic drugs.

Interleukin-6 and JAK2/STAT3 signaling mediate the reversion of dexamethasone resistance after dexamethasone withdrawal in 7TD1 multiple myeloma cells.

We previously reported the establishment and characteristics of a DXM-resistant cell line (7TD1-DXM) generated from the IL6-dependent mouse B cell hybridoma, 7TD1 cell line. After withdrawing DXM from 7TD1-DXM cells over 90 days, DXM significantly inhibited the cell growth and induced apoptosis in the cells (7TD1-WD) compared with 7TD1-DXM cells. Additionally, IL-6 reversed while IL-6 antibody and AG490 enhanced the effects of growth inhibition and apoptosis induced by DXM in 7TD1-WD cells. Our study demonstrates that 7TD1-DXM cells become resensitized to DXM after DXM withdrawal, and IL-6 and JAK2/STAT3 pathways may regulate the phenomenon.

Regulation of astrocyte glutamine synthetase in epilepsy.

Astrocytes play a crucial role in regulating and maintaining the extracellular chemical milieu of the central nervous system under physiological conditions. Moreover, proliferation of phenotypically altered astrocytes (a.k.a. reactive astrogliosis) has been associated with many neurologic and psychiatric disorders, including mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE). Glutamine synthetase (GS), which is found in astrocytes, is the only enzyme known to date that is capable of converting glutamate and ammonia to glutamine in the mammalian brain. This reaction is important, because a continuous supply of glutamine is necessary for the synthesis of glutamate and GABA in neurons. The known stoichiometry of glutamate transport across the astrocyte plasma membrane also suggests that rapid metabolism of intracellular glutamate via GS is a prerequisite for efficient glutamate clearance from the extracellular space. Several studies have indicated that the activity of GS in astrocytes is diminished in several brain disorders, including MTLE. It has been hypothesized that the loss of GS activity in MTLE leads to increased extracellular glutamate concentrations and epileptic seizures. Understanding the mechanisms by which GS is regulated may lead to novel therapeutic approaches to MTLE, which is frequently refractory to antiepileptic drugs. This review discusses several known mechanisms by which GS expression and function are influenced, from transcriptional control to enzyme modification.

Neuroprotection against neuroblastoma cell death induced by depletion of mitochondrial glutathione.

Mitochondrial glutathione pool is vital in protecting cells against oxidative stress as the majority of the cellular reactive oxygen species are generated in mitochondria. Oxidative stress is implicated as a causative factor in neuronal death in neurodegenerative disorders. We hypothesized that depletion of mitochondrial glutathione leads to mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptotic death of SK-N-SH (human neuroblastoma) cells and investigated the neuroprotective strategies against GSH depletion. SK-N-SH cells were treated with two distinct inhibitors of glutathione metabolism: L-buthionine-(S, R)-sulfoximine (BSO) and ethacrynic acid (EA). EA treatment caused depletion of both the total and mitochondrial glutathione (while BSO had no effect on mitochondrial glutathione), enhanced rotenone-induced ROS production, and reduced the viability of SK-N-SH cells. Glutathione depletion by BSO or EA demonstrated positive features of mitochondria-mediated apoptosis in neuroblastoma cell death. Prevention of apoptosis by Bcl2 overexpression or use of antioxidant ebselen did not confer neuroprotection. Co-culture with U-87 (human glioblastoma) cells protected SK-N-SH cells from the cell death. Our data suggest that depletion of mitochondrial glutathione leads to mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis. The study indicates that preventing mitochondrial glutathione depletion could become a novel strategy for the development of neuroprotective therapeutics in neurodegenerative disorders.

Identification and characterization of a 66-68-kDa protein as a methotrexate-binding protein in murine leukemia L1210 cells.

We previously observed an unidentified, tyrosine-phosphorylated, membrane-associated, 66-68-kDa protein which was present in the L1210 murine leukemia cells but not present, at least in the tyrosine-phosphorylated form, in cisplatin-methotrexate (CDDP-MTX) cross-resistant L1210/DDP cells. We purified and characterized this 66-68-kDa protein by affinity chromatography purification using its two identified properties, tyrosine phosphorylation and MTX-binding, and yielded a single band of 66-68 kDa. The purified protein was subjected to trypsin digestion and the isolated peptide fragments were sequenced and yielded two partial peptide sequences: VEIIANDQ and VTNAVVTVPAYFNDSQRQA. The two peptide sequences were used to search for the mouse genome at the national center for biotechnology information (NCBI) database for Open Reading Frame Sequence (ORFs) containing these peptides using the TBLASTN function. A single gene was identified containing both sequences, the HSPa8 gene, which codes for the heat shock family protein, HSC70. We further demonstrated that HSC70 is a MTX-binding protein using a binding assay with MTX-agarose beads followed by Western blotting. The HSC70 also existed in various cancer cell lines and showed binding to MTX. Additionally, the HSC70 protein, cloned from the L1210 murine leukemia cells, was expressed and purified from E. coli cells using a polyhistidine-tag purification system and it also showed the binding properties with MTX. DnaK, the HSC70 homologue in E. coli, also binds to MTX. By using the purified truncated HSC70 domains, we identified the adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) domain of HSC70 that can bind to MTX. Thus, we have tentatively characterized a new, novel property of HSC70 as a MTX-binding protein.

Functional enhancement of chitosan and nanoparticles in cell culture, tissue engineering, and pharmaceutical applications.

As a biomaterial, chitosan has been widely used in tissue engineering, wound healing, drug delivery, and other biomedical applications. It can be formulated in a variety of forms, such as powder, film, sphere, gel, and fiber. These features make chitosan an almost ideal biomaterial in cell culture applications, and cell cultures arguably constitute the most practical way to evaluate biocompatibility and biotoxicity. The advantages of cell cultures are that they can be performed under totally controlled environments, allow high throughput functional screening, and are less costly, as compared to other assessment methods. Chitosan can also be modified into multilayer composite by combining with other polymers and moieties to alter the properties of chitosan for particular biomedical applications. This review briefly depicts and discusses applications of chitosan and nanoparticles in cell culture, in particular, the effects of chitosan and nanoparticles on cell adhesion, cell survival, and the underlying molecular mechanisms: both stimulatory and inhibitory influences are discussed. Our aim is to update the current status of how nanoparticles can be utilized to modify the properties of chitosan to advance the art of tissue engineering by using cell cultures.

Chronic hypoxia-induced alterations of key enzymes of glucose oxidative metabolism in developing mouse liver are mTOR dependent.

Hypoxia is a potent regulator of gene expression and cellular energy metabolism and known to interfere with post-natal growth and development. Although hypoxia can induce adaptive changes in the developing liver, the mechanisms underlying these changes are poorly understood. To elucidate some of the adaptive changes chronic hypoxia induces in the developing liver, we studied the expression of the genes of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling and glucose metabolism, undertook proteomic examination with 2D gel-MS/MS of electron transport chain, and determined activities and protein expression of several key regulatory enzymes of glucose oxidative metabolism. To gain insight into the molecular mechanism underlying hypoxia-induced liver metabolic adaptation, we treated a subset of mice with rapamycin (0.5 mg/kg/day) to inhibit mTOR postnatally. Rapamycin-treated mice showed lower birth weight, lower body weight, and liver growth retardation in a pattern similar to that observed in the hypoxic mice at P30. Rapamycin treatment led to differential impact on the cytoplasmic and mitochondrial pathways of glucose metabolism. Our results suggest a decrease in mTOR activity as part of the mechanisms underlying hypoxia-induced changes in the activities of glycolytic and TCA cycle enzymes in liver. Chronic postnatal hypoxia induces mTOR-dependent differential effects on liver glycolytic and TCA cycle enzymes and as such should be studied further as they have pathophysiological implications in hepatic diseases and conditions in which hypoxia plays a role.

Treatment of human astrocytoma U87 cells with silicon dioxide nanoparticles lowers their survival and alters their expression of mitochondrial and cell signaling proteins.

Recent evidence suggests silicon dioxide micro- and nanoparticles induce cytotoxic effects on lung cells. Thus, there is an increasing concern regarding their potential health hazard. Nevertheless, the putative toxicity of nanoparticles in mammalian cells has not yet been systematically investigated. We previously noted that several metallic oxide nanoparticles exert differential cytotoxic effects on human neural and nonneural cells. Therefore, we hypothesized that silicon dioxide nanoparticles induce cytotoxicity in U87 cells by lowering their survival by decreasing cell survival signaling and disturbing mitochondrial function. To investigate this hypothesis, we determined the activities of the key mitochondrial enzymes, citrate synthase and malate dehydrogenase, in astrocytoma U87 cells treated with silicon dioxide nanoparticles. In addition, we studied the expression of the mitochondrial DNA-encoded proteins, cytochrome C oxidase II and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADPH) dehydrogenase subunit 6, and cell signaling pathway protein extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and phosphorylated ERK in treated U87 cells. The activated form of ERK controls cell growth, differentiation, and proliferation. In parallel, we determined survival of U87 cells after treating them with various concentrations of silicon dioxide nanoparticles. Our results indicated that treatment with silicon dioxide nanoparticles induced decreases in U87 cell survival in a dose-related manner. The activities of citrate synthase and malate dehydrogenase in treated U87 cells were increased, possibly due to an energetic compensation in surviving cells. However, the expression of mitochondrial DNA-encoded cytochrome C oxidase subunit II and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 6 and the cell signaling protein ERK and phosphorylated ERK were altered in the treated U87 cells, suggesting that silicon dioxide nanoparticles induced disruption of mitochondrial DNA-encoded protein expression, leading to decreased mitochondrial energy production and decreased cell survival/proliferation signaling. Thus, our results strongly suggest that the cytotoxicity of silicon dioxide nanoparticles in human neural cells implicates altered mitochondrial function and cell survival/proliferation signaling.

Glycolytic enzyme inhibitors affect pancreatic cancer survival by modulating its signaling and energetics.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: The importance of glycolysis in cancer cells is well documented. The effects of inhibiting glycolysis using metabolic inhibitors iodoacetate (IAA), an inhibitor of GAPDHase, and 3-bromopyruvate (3BP), an inhibitor of hexokinase-II, on survival and signaling of pancreatic cancer cells (Panc-1) were investigated. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Cellular survival was evaluated using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assay was used to analyze the induced necrosis and protein levels were evaluated using Western blot analysis. RESULTS: The results show that the inhibitors lowered cellular survival and increased cellular necrosis. Mitogenic signaling pathways were affected by 3BP but not by IAA. CONCLUSION: We conclude that there may be a cross-talk between signaling pathways and glycolysis in regulating pancreatic cancer cell survival and signaling. Thus, a combination of agents that inhibit both energy production and cell signaling may provide a novel and effective approach to target pancreatic cancer effectively.

Effect of combination treatment of rapamycin and isoflavones on mTOR pathway in human glioblastoma (U87) cells.

Glioblastoma Multiforme (GBM) is a malignant primary brain tumor associated with poor survival rate. PI3K/Akt pathway is highly upregulated in gliomas due to deletion or mutation of PTEN and its activation is associated with tumor grade. mTOR is downstream from PI3K/Akt pathway and it initiates translation through its action on S6K and 4E-BP1. mTOR is an important therapeutic target in many cancers, including glioblastomas. Rapamycin and its analogues are known to inhibit mTOR pathway; however, they also show simultaneous upregulation of Akt and eIF4E survival pathways on inhibition of mTOR, rendering cells more resistant to rapamycin treatment. In this study we investigated the effect of combination treatment of rapamycin with isoflavones such as genistein and biochanin A on mTOR pathway and activation of Akt and eIF4E in human glioblastoma (U87) cells. Our results show that combination treatment of rapamycin with isoflavones, especially biochanin A at 50 muM, decreased the phosphorylation of Akt and eIF4E proteins and rendered U87 cells more sensitive to rapamycin treatment when compared to cells treated with rapamycin alone. These results suggest the importance of combining chemopreventive with chemotherapeutic agents in order to increase the efficacy of chemotherapeutic drugs.

Inhibition of Cell Proliferation and MAP Kinase and Akt Pathways in Oral Squamous cell Carcinoma by Genistein and Biochanin A.

High morbidity and mortality associated with oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) are largely attributable to late stage diagnosis. Despite significant advances in therapeutic strategies, the five-year survival rate for oral cancer remains at about 50%. A chemopreventive approach may be an effective alternative or adjunct to current therapies. Previous studies have shown anti-tumor effects of isoflavones in several cancers, including oral cancer. However, their mechanisms of action are still unclear. We hypothesized that isoflavones inhibit multiple signaling pathways implicated in oral carcinogenesis. To address our hypothesis, we investigated the effects of three isoflavone derivatives, genistein, biochanin A and daidzein, on SCC15 and SCC25 squamous cell carcinoma cell lines. In cell proliferation experiments, we found that genistein and biochanin A inhibited SCC15 and SCC25 cell growth with an IC50 of 50 µM. We also investigated the effect of isoflavones on ERK and Akt pathways. Our results, from western blot analysis, suggest that both genistein and biochanin A induced decreases in phosphorylation of ERK and Akt at treatment concentrations of 20, 50 and 100 µM. Taken together, our results clearly demonstrate a differential regulation of signaling pathways by various isoflavones in OSCC cell lines. Thus, tumor progression models can be utilized to study the preventive and therapeutic roles of isoflavones in oral cancer cell lines.

Reduced glutathione regenerating enzymes undergo developmental decline and sexual dimorphism in the rat cerebral cortex.

Oxidative stress during development may predispose humans to neurodegenerative disorders in old age. Moreover, numerous ailments of brain disproportionately affect one of the genders. We therefore hypothesized that, activities of enzymes regenerating and utilizing glutathione (GSH) show sexual dimorphism and developmental differences in rat brain. To test this hypothesis, we collected cortex tissue from male and female Sprague-Dawley rats at post-natal day (PN) 5, PN 10, PN 20, PN 30, and PN 60. We measured tissue levels of NADP-linked isocitrate dehydrogenase (NADP-ICDH), glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH), and, glutathione reductase (GR) by UV spectrophotometry and determined glutathione peroxidase (GPx) expression therein by western blotting. Our results showed that sexual maturation had an impact on activities of enzymes that regenerate and utilize GSH and rat female cortex had more anti-oxidant capacity. Moreover, age-related decline in the activities of these key enzymes were observed. Reduced glutathione and NADPH protects the brain from oxidative stress. Thus, our results may have implications for neurodegenerative disorders like Parkinson's disease and developmental disorders of brain like autism in which oxidative stress plays a key role.