Transcriptional landscape of human keratinocyte models exposed to 60-GHz millimeter-waves.

The use of millimeter waves (MMW) will exponentially grow in the coming years due to their future utilization in 5G/6G networks. The question of possible biological effects at these frequencies has been raised. In this present study, we aimed to investigate gene expression changes under exposure to MMW using the Bulk RNA Barcoding and sequencing (BRB-seq) technology. To address this issue, three exposure scenarios were performed aiming at: i) comparing the cellular response of two primary culture of keratinocytes (HEK and NHEK) and one keratinocyte derivate cell line (HaCaT) exposed to MMW; ii) exploring the incident power density dose-effect on gene expression in HaCaT cell line; and, iii) studying the exposure duration at the new ICNIRP exposure limit for the general population. With the exception of heat effect induced by high power MMW (over 10 mW/cm2), those exposure scenarios have not enabled us to demonstrate important gene expression changes in the different cell populations studied. Very few differentially genes were observed between MMW exposed samples and heat shock control, and most of them were significantly associated with heat shock response that may reflect small differences in the heat generation. Together these results show that acute exposure to MMW has no effects on the transcriptional landscape of human keratinocyte models under athermal conditions.

Multimodal cartography of human lymphopoiesis reveals B and T/NK/ILC lineages are subjected to differential regulation.

The developmental cartography of human lymphopoiesis remains incompletely understood. Here, we establish a multimodal map demonstrating that lymphoid specification follows independent direct or stepwise hierarchic routes converging toward the emergence of newly characterized CD117lo multi-lymphoid progenitors (MLPs) that undergo a proliferation arrest before entering the CD127- (NK/ILC/T) or CD127+ (B) lymphoid pathways. While the differentiation of CD127- early lymphoid progenitors is mainly driven by Flt3 signaling, emergence of their CD127+ counterparts is regulated cell-intrinsically and depends exclusively on the divisional history of their upstream precursors, including hematopoietic stem cells. Further, transcriptional mapping of differentiation trajectories reveals that whereas myeloid granulomonocytic lineages follow continuous differentiation pathways, lymphoid trajectories are intrinsically discontinuous and characterized by sequential waves of cell proliferation allowing pre-commitment amplification of lymphoid progenitor pools. Besides identifying new lymphoid specification pathways and regulatory checkpoints, our results demonstrate that NK/ILC/T and B lineages are under fundamentally distinct modes of regulation. (149 words).

Single-cell Deconvolution of a Specific Malignant Cell Population as a Poor Prognostic Biomarker in Low-risk Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinoma Patients.

BACKGROUND: Intratumor heterogeneity (ITH) is a key feature in clear cell renal cell carcinomas (ccRCCs) that impacts outcomes such as aggressiveness, response to treatments, or recurrence. In particular, it may explain tumor relapse after surgery in clinically low-risk patients who did not benefit from adjuvant therapy. Recently, single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) has emerged as a powerful tool to unravel expression ITH (eITH) and might enable better assessment of clinical outcomes in ccRCC. OBJECTIVE: To explore eITH in ccRCC with a focus on malignant cells (MCs) and assess its relevance to improve prognosis for low-risk patients. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: We performed scRNA-seq on tumor samples from five untreated ccRCC patients ranging from pT1a to pT3b. Data were complemented with a published dataset composed of pairs of matched normal and ccRCC samples. INTERVENTION: Radical or partial nephrectomy on untreated ccRCC patients. OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: Viability and cell type proportions were determined by flow cytometry. Following scRNA-seq, a functional analysis was performed and tumor progression trajectories were inferred. A deconvolution approach was applied on an external cohort, and Kaplan-Meier survival curves were estimated with respect to the prevalence of malignant clusters. RESULTS AND LIMITATIONS: We analyzed 54 812 cells and identified 35 cell subpopulations. The eITH analysis revealed that each tumor contained various degrees of clonal diversity. The transcriptomic signatures of MCs in one particularly heterogeneous sample were used to design a deconvolution-based strategy that allowed the risk stratification of 310 low-risk ccRCC patients. CONCLUSIONS: We described eITH in ccRCCs, and used this information to establish significant cell population-based prognostic signatures and better discriminate ccRCC patients. This approach has the potential to improve the stratification of clinically low-risk patients and their therapeutic management. PATIENT SUMMARY: We sequenced the RNA content of individual cell subpopulations composed of clear cell renal cell carcinomas and identified specific malignant cells the genetic information of which can be used to predict tumor progression.

The anti-androgenic fungicide triticonazole induces region-specific transcriptional changes in the developing rat perineum and phallus.

Intrauterine exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals can interfere with male reproductive development. This can lead to male reproductive disorders such as hypospadias, cryptorchidism and reduced fertility, as well as shorter anogenital distance (AGD) - a biomarker for incomplete androgen-dependent fetal masculinization. However, it remains challenging to predict adverse in vivo outcomes based on in vitro effect patterns for many chemicals. This is a challenge for modern toxicology, which aims to reduce animal testing for chemical safety assessments. To enable the transition towards higher reliance on alternative test methods, we need to better map underlying mechanisms leading to adverse effects. Herein, we have analyzed the transcriptome of the perineum and phallus of male fetal rats and defined the impacts of exposure to an anti-androgenic fungicide, triticonazole. Previously we have shown that developmental exposure to triticonazole can induce short male AGD, but without a marked effect on the transcriptome of the fetal testes. In contrast, we report here significant changes to the transcriptional landscape of the perineum and phallus, including regional differences between these adjacent tissues. This highlights the importance of analyzing the correct tissue when characterizing mechanisms of complex in vivo effect outcomes. Our results provide a rich resource for the spatiotemporal gene networks that are involved in the development of male external genitalia, and that can be disrupted upon exposure to chemicals that prevent normal masculinization of the perineum and phallus. Such data will be critical in the development of novel alternative test methods to determine the endocrine disrupting potential of existing and emerging chemicals.

FlexDotPlot: a universal and modular dot plot visualization tool for complex multifaceted data.

Motivation: Dot plots are heatmap-like charts that provide a compact way to simultaneously display two quantitative information by means of dots of different sizes and colors. Despite the popularity of this visualization method, particularly in single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) studies, existing tools used to make dot plots are limited in terms of functionality and usability. Results: We developed FlexDotPlot, an R package for generating dot plots from multifaceted data, including scRNA-seq data. It provides a universal and easy-to-use solution with a high versatility. An interactive R Shiny application is also available allowing non-R users to easily generate dot plots with several tunable parameters. Availability and implementation: Source code and detailed manual are available on CRAN (stable version) and at https://github.com/Simon-Leonard/FlexDotPlot (development version). Code to reproduce figures is available at https://github.com/Simon-Leonard/FlexDotPlot_paper. A Shiny app is available as a stand-alone application within the package. Supplementary information: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics Advances online.

Adult female rats perinatally exposed to perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS) and a mixture of endocrine disruptors display increased body/fat weights without a transcriptional footprint in fat cells.

Obesity is a complex disease with many causes, including a possible role for environmental chemicals. Perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS) is one of many per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) frequently detected in humans and it is suspected to be an obesogenic compound. We examined the potential long-term effects of PFHxS on metabolic parameters in rats after developmental exposure to 0.05, 5 or 25 mg/kg bw/day, with or without co-exposure to a background mixture of twelve endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDmix). Both male and female offspring showed signs of lower birth weight following intrauterine exposure. Female offspring exposed to both PFHxS and EDmix had increased body weight in adulthood. The retroperitoneal fat pad was larger in the PFHxS-exposed female offspring when compared to those exposed to EDmix alone. An attempt to detect putative molecular markers in the fat tissue by performing whole transcriptome profiling revealed no significant changes between groups and there were no significant effects on plasma leptin levels in exposed females. Our results show that early life exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals can influence body weight later in life, but the effect is not necessarily reflected in changed gene expression in the fat tissue.

Transcriptome analysis of fetal rat testis following intrauterine exposure to the azole fungicides triticonazole and flusilazole reveals subtle changes despite adverse endocrine effects.

Azoles are used in agriculture and medicine to combat fungal infections. We have previously examined the endocrine disrupting properties of the agricultural azole fungicides triticonazole and flusilazole. Triticonazole displayed strong androgen receptor (AR) antagonism in vitro, whereas in utero exposure resulted in anti-androgenic effects in vivo evidenced by shorter anogenital distance (AGD) in fetal male rats. Flusilazole displayed strong AR antagonism, but less potent than triticonazole, and disrupted steroidogenesis in vitro, whereas in utero exposure disrupted fetal male plasma hormone levels. To elaborate on how these azole fungicides can disrupt male reproductive development by different mechanisms, and to investigate whether feminization effects such as short AGD in males can also be detected at the transcript level in fetal testes, we profiled fetal testis transcriptomes after in utero exposure to triticonazole and flusilazole by 3'Digital Gene Expression (3'DGE). The analysis revealed few transcriptional changes after exposure to either compound at gestation day 17 and 21. This suggests that the observed influence of flusilazole on hormone production may be by directly targeting steroidogenic enzyme activity in the testis at the protein level, whereas observations of shorter AGD by triticonazole may primarily be due to disturbed androgen signaling in androgen-sensitive tissues. Expression of Calb2 and Gsta2 was altered by flusilazole but not triticonazole and may pinpoint novel pathways of disrupted testicular steroid synthesis. Our findings have wider implication for how we integrate omics data in chemical testing frameworks, including selection of non-animal test methods and building of Adverse Outcome Pathways for regulatory purposes.

Characterization of Glyceollins as Novel Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Ligands and Their Role in Cell Migration.

Recent studies strongly support the use of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) as a therapeutic target in breast cancer. Glyceollins, a group of soybean phytoalexins, are known to exert therapeutic effects in chronic human diseases and also in cancer. To investigate the interaction between glyceollin I (GI), glyceollin II (GII) and AhR, a computational docking analysis, luciferase assays, immunofluorescence and transcriptome analyses were performed with different cancer cell lines. The docking experiments predicted that GI and GII can enter into the AhR binding pocket, but their interactions with the amino acids of the binding site differ, in part, from those interacting with 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). Both GI and GII were able to weakly and partially activate AhR, with GII being more potent. The results from the transcriptome assays showed that approximately 10% of the genes regulated by TCDD were also modified by both GI and GII, which could have either antagonistic or synergistic effects upon TCDD activation. In addition, we report here, on the basis of phenotype, that GI and GII inhibit the migration of triple-negative (ER-, PgR-, HER2NEU-) MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells, and that they inhibit the expression of genes which code for important regulators of cell migration and invasion in cancer tissues. In conclusion, GI and GII are AhR ligands that should be further investigated to determine their usefulness in cancer treatments.

The ReproGenomics Viewer: a multi-omics and cross-species resource compatible with single-cell studies for the reproductive science community.

MOTIVATION: Recent advances in transcriptomics have enabled unprecedented insight into gene expression analysis at a single-cell resolution. While it is anticipated that the number of publications based on such technologies will increase in the next decade, there is currently no public resource to centralize and enable scientists to explore single-cell datasets published in the field of reproductive biology. RESULTS: Here, we present a major update of the ReproGenomics Viewer, a cross-species and cross-technology web-based resource of manually-curated sequencing datasets related to reproduction. The redesign of the ReproGenomics Viewer's architecture is accompanied by significant growth of the database content including several landmark single-cell RNA-sequencing datasets. The implementation of additional tools enables users to visualize and browse the complex, high-dimensional data now being generated in the reproductive field. AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION: The ReproGenomics Viewer resource is freely accessible at http://rgv.genouest.org. The website is implemented in Python, JavaScript and MongoDB, and is compatible with all major browsers. Source codes can be downloaded from https://github.com/fchalmel/RGV. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Vascular Delivery of Allogeneic MuStem Cells in Dystrophic Dogs Requires Only Short-Term Immunosuppression to Avoid Host Immunity and Generate Clinical/Tissue Benefits.

Growing demonstrations of regenerative potential for some stem cells led recently to promising therapeutic proposals for neuromuscular diseases. We have shown that allogeneic MuStem cell transplantation into Golden Retriever muscular dystrophy (GRMD) dogs under continuous immunosuppression (IS) leads to persistent clinical stabilization and muscle repair. However, long-term IS in medical practice is associated with adverse effects raising safety concerns. Here, we investigate whether the IS removal or its restriction to the transplantation period could be considered. Dogs aged 4-5 months old received vascular infusions of allogeneic MuStem cells without IS (GRMDMU/no-IS) or under transient IS (GRMDMU/tr-IS). At 5 months post-infusion, persisting clinical status improvement of the GRMDMU/tr-IS dogs was observed while GRMDMU/no-IS dogs exhibited no benefit. Histologically, only 9-month-old GRMDMU/tr-IS dogs showed an increased muscle regenerative activity. A mixed cell reaction with the host peripheral blood mononucleated cells (PBMCs) and corresponding donor cells revealed undetectable to weak lymphocyte proliferation in GRMDMU/tr-IS dogs compared with a significant proliferation in GRMDMU/no-IS dogs. Importantly, any dog group showed neither cellular nor humoral anti-dystrophin responses. Our results show that transient IS is necessary and sufficient to sustain allogeneic MuStem cell transplantation benefits and prevent host immunity. These findings provide useful critical insight to designing therapeutic strategies.

Human serum and platelet lysate are appropriate xeno-free alternatives for clinical-grade production of human MuStem cell batches.

BACKGROUND: Canine MuStem cells have demonstrated regenerative efficacy in a dog model of muscular dystrophy, and the recent characterization of human counterparts (hMuStem) has highlighted the therapeutic potential of this muscle-derived stem cell population. To date, these cells have only been generated in research-grade conditions. However, evaluation of the clinical efficacy of any such therapy will require the production of hMuStem cells in compliance with good manufacturing practices (GMPs). Because the current use of fetal bovine serum (FBS) to isolate and expand hMuStem cells raises several ethical, safety, and supply concerns, we assessed the use of two alternative xeno-free blood derivatives: human serum (HS) and a human platelet lysate (hPL). METHODS: hMuStem cells were isolated and expanded in vitro in either HS-supplemented or hPL-supplemented media and the proliferation rate, clonogenicity, myogenic commitment potential, and oligopotency compared with that observed in FBS-supplemented medium. Flow cytometry and high-throughput 3'-digital gene expression RNA sequencing were used to characterize the phenotype and global gene expression pattern of hMuStem cells cultured with HS or hPL. RESULTS: HS-supplemented and hPL-supplemented media both supported the isolation and long-term proliferation of hMuStem cells. Compared with FBS-based medium, both supplements enhanced clonogenicity and allowed for a reduction in growth factor supplementation. Neither supplement altered the cell lineage pattern of hMuStem cells. In vitro differentiation assays revealed a decrease in myogenic commitment and in the fusion ability of hMuStem cells when cultured with hPL. In return, this reduction of myogenic potential in hPL-supplemented cultures was rapidly reversed by substitution of hPL with HS or fibrinogen-depleted hPL. Moreover, culture of hMuStem cells in hPL hydrogel and fibrinogen-depleted hPL demonstrated that myogenic differentiation potential is maintained in heparin-free hPL derivatives. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that HS and hPL are efficient and viable alternatives to FBS for the preparation of hMuStem cell batches in compliance with GMPs.

Quantitative proteome profiling of dystrophic dog skeletal muscle reveals a stabilized muscular architecture and protection against oxidative stress after systemic delivery of MuStem cells.

Proteomic profiling plays a decisive role in the elucidation of molecular signatures representative of a specific clinical context. MuStem cell based therapy represents a promising approach for clinical applications to cure Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). To expand our previous studies collected in the clinically relevant DMD animal model, we decided to investigate the skeletal muscle proteome 4 months after systemic delivery of allogenic MuStem cells. Quantitative proteomics with isotope-coded protein labeling was used to compile quantitative changes in the protein expression profiles of muscle in transplanted Golden Retriever muscular dystrophy (GRMD) dogs as compared to Golden Retriever muscular dystrophy dogs. A total of 492 proteins were quantified, including 25 that were overrepresented and 46 that were underrepresented after MuStem cell transplantation. Interestingly, this study demonstrates that somatic stem cell therapy impacts on the structural integrity of the muscle fascicle by acting on fibers and its connections with the extracellular matrix. We also show that cell infusion promotes protective mechanisms against oxidative stress and favors the initial phase of muscle repair. This study allows us to identify putative candidates for tissue markers that might be of great value in objectively exploring the clinical benefits resulting from our cell-based therapy for DMD. All MS data have been deposited in the ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD001768 (http://proteomecentral.proteomexchange.org/dataset/PXD001768).

Differential Gene Expression Profiling of Dystrophic Dog Muscle after MuStem Cell Transplantation.

BACKGROUND: Several adult stem cell populations exhibit myogenic regenerative potential, thus representing attractive candidates for therapeutic approaches of neuromuscular diseases such as Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD). We have recently shown that systemic delivery of MuStem cells, skeletal muscle-resident stem cells isolated in healthy dog, generates the remodelling of muscle tissue and gives rise to striking clinical benefits in Golden Retriever Muscular Dystrophy (GRMD) dog. This global effect, which is observed in the clinically relevant DMD animal model, leads us to question here the molecular pathways that are impacted by MuStem cell transplantation. To address this issue, we compare the global gene expression profile between healthy, GRMD and MuStem cell treated GRMD dog muscle, four months after allogenic MuStem cell transplantation. RESULTS: In the dystrophic context of the GRMD dog, disease-related deregulation is observed in the case of 282 genes related to various processes such as inflammatory response, regeneration, calcium ion binding, extracellular matrix organization, metabolism and apoptosis regulation. Importantly, we reveal the impact of MuStem cell transplantation on several molecular and cellular pathways based on a selection of 31 genes displaying signals specifically modulated by the treatment. Concomitant with a diffuse dystrophin expression, a histological remodelling and a stabilization of GRMD dog clinical status, we show that cell delivery is associated with an up-regulation of genes reflecting a sustained enhancement of muscle regeneration. We also identify a decreased mRNA expression of a set of genes having metabolic functions associated with lipid homeostasis and energy. Interestingly, ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation is highly enhanced in GRMD dog muscle after systemic delivery of MuStem cells. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, our results provide the first high-throughput characterization of GRMD dog muscle and throw new light on the complex molecular/cellular effects associated with muscle repair and the clinical efficacy of MuStem cell-based therapy.

Global alterations of the transcriptional landscape during yeast growth and development in the absence of Ume6-dependent chromatin modification.

Chromatin modification enzymes are important regulators of gene expression and some are evolutionarily conserved from yeast to human. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a major model organism for genome-wide studies that aim at the identification of target genes under the control of conserved epigenetic regulators. Ume6 interacts with the upstream repressor site 1 (URS1) and represses transcription by recruiting both the conserved histone deacetylase Rpd3 (through the co-repressor Sin3) and the chromatin-remodeling factor Isw2. Cells lacking Ume6 are defective in growth, stress response, and meiotic development. RNA profiling studies and in vivo protein-DNA binding assays identified mRNAs or transcript isoforms that are directly repressed by Ume6 in mitosis. However, a comprehensive understanding of the transcriptional alterations, which underlie the complex ume6Δ mutant phenotype during fermentation, respiration, or sporulation, is lacking. We report the protein-coding transcriptome of a diploid MAT a/α wild-type and ume6/ume6 mutant strains cultured in rich media with glucose or acetate as a carbon source, or sporulation-inducing medium. We distinguished direct from indirect effects on mRNA levels by combining GeneChip data with URS1 motif predictions and published high-throughput in vivo Ume6-DNA binding data. To gain insight into the molecular interactions between successive waves of Ume6-dependent meiotic genes, we integrated expression data with information on protein networks. Our work identifies novel Ume6 repressed genes during growth and development and reveals a strong effect of the carbon source on the derepression pattern of transcripts in growing and developmentally arrested ume6/ume6 mutant cells. Since yeast is a useful model organism for chromatin-mediated effects on gene expression, our results provide a rich source for further genetic and molecular biological work on the regulation of cell growth and cell differentiation in eukaryotes.

Integrated RNA- and protein profiling of fermentation and respiration in diploid budding yeast provides insight into nutrient control of cell growth and development.

Diploid budding yeast undergoes rapid mitosis when it ferments glucose, and in the presence of a non-fermentable carbon source and the absence of a nitrogen source it triggers sporulation. Rich medium with acetate is a commonly used pre-sporulation medium, but our understanding of the molecular events underlying the acetate-driven transition from mitosis to meiosis is still incomplete. We identified 263 proteins for which mRNA and protein synthesis are linked or uncoupled in fermenting and respiring cells. Using motif predictions, interaction data and RNA profiling we find among them 28 likely targets for Ume6, a subunit of the conserved Rpd3/Sin3 histone deacetylase-complex regulating genes involved in metabolism, stress response and meiosis. Finally, we identify 14 genes for which both RNA and proteins are detected exclusively in respiring cells but not in fermenting cells in our sample set, including CSM4, SPR1, SPS4 and RIM4, which were thought to be meiosis-specific. Our work reveals intertwined transcriptional and post-transcriptional control mechanisms acting when a MATa/α strain responds to nutritional signals, and provides molecular clues how the carbon source primes yeast cells for entering meiosis. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Our integrated genomics study provides insight into the interplay between the transcriptome and the proteome in diploid yeast cells undergoing vegetative growth in the presence of glucose (fermentation) or acetate (respiration). Furthermore, it reveals novel target genes involved in these processes for Ume6, the DNA binding subunit of the conserved histone deacetylase Rpd3 and the co-repressor Sin3. We have combined data from an RNA profiling experiment using tiling arrays that cover the entire yeast genome, and a large-scale protein detection analysis based on mass spectrometry in diploid MATa/α cells. This distinguishes our study from most others in the field-which investigate haploid yeast strains-because only diploid cells can undergo meiotic development in the simultaneous absence of a non-fermentable carbon source and nitrogen. Indeed, we report molecular clues how respiration of acetate might prime diploid cells for efficient spore formation, a phenomenon that is well known but poorly understood.

The conserved histone deacetylase Rpd3 and its DNA binding subunit Ume6 control dynamic transcript architecture during mitotic growth and meiotic development.

It was recently reported that the sizes of many mRNAs change when budding yeast cells exit mitosis and enter the meiotic differentiation pathway. These differences were attributed to length variations of their untranslated regions. The function of UTRs in protein translation is well established. However, the mechanism controlling the expression of distinct transcript isoforms during mitotic growth and meiotic development is unknown. In this study, we order developmentally regulated transcript isoforms according to their expression at specific stages during meiosis and gametogenesis, as compared to vegetative growth and starvation. We employ regulatory motif prediction, in vivo protein-DNA binding assays, genetic analyses and monitoring of epigenetic amino acid modification patterns to identify a novel role for Rpd3 and Ume6, two components of a histone deacetylase complex already known to repress early meiosis-specific genes in dividing cells, in mitotic repression of meiosis-specific transcript isoforms. Our findings classify developmental stage-specific early, middle and late meiotic transcript isoforms, and they point to a novel HDAC-dependent control mechanism for flexible transcript architecture during cell growth and differentiation. Since Rpd3 is highly conserved and ubiquitously expressed in many tissues, our results are likely relevant for development and disease in higher eukaryotes.

Developmental stage dependent metabolic regulation during meiotic differentiation in budding yeast.

BACKGROUND: The meiotic developmental pathway in yeast enables both differentiation of vegetative cells into haploid spores that ensure long-term survival, and recombination of the parental DNA to create genetic diversity. Despite the importance of proper metabolic regulation for the supply of building blocks and energy, little is known about the reprogramming of central metabolic pathways in meiotically differentiating cells during passage through successive developmental stages. RESULTS: Metabolic regulation during meiotic differentiation in budding yeast was analysed by integrating information on genome-wide transcriptional activity, 26 enzymatic activities in the central metabolism, the dynamics of 67 metabolites, and a metabolic flux analysis at mid-stage meiosis. Analyses of mutants arresting sporulation at defined stages demonstrated that metabolic reprogramming is tightly controlled by the progression through the developmental pathway. The correlation between transcript levels and enzymatic activities in the central metabolism varies significantly in a developmental-stage dependent manner. The complete loss of phosphofructokinase activity at mid-stage meiosis enables a unique setup of the glycolytic pathway which facilitates carbon flux repartitioning into synthesis of spore-wall precursors during the co-assimilation of glycogen and acetate. The need for correct homeostasis of purine nucleotides during the meiotic differentiation was demonstrated by the sporulation defect of the AMP deaminase mutant, amd1, which exhibited hyper-accumulation of ATP accompanied by depletion of guanosine nucleotides. CONCLUSIONS: Our systems-level analysis shows that reprogramming of the central metabolism during the meiotic differentiation is controlled at different hierarchical levels to meet the metabolic and energetic needs at successive developmental stages.

High-resolution profiling of novel transcribed regions during rat spermatogenesis.

Mammalian spermatogenesis is a complex and highly orchestrated combination of processes in which male germline proliferation and differentiation result in the production of mature spermatozoa. If recent genome-wide studies have contributed to the in-depth analysis of the male germline protein-encoding transcriptome, little effort has yet been devoted to the systematic identification of novel unannotated transcribed regions expressed during mammalian spermatogenesis. We report high-resolution expression profiling of male germ cells in rat, using next-generation sequencing technology and highly enriched testicular cell populations. Among 20 424 high-confidence transcripts reconstructed, we defined a stringent set of 1419 long multi-exonic unannotated transcripts expressed in the testis (testis-expressed unannotated transcripts [TUTs]). TUTs were divided into 7 groups with different expression patterns. Most TUTs share many of the characteristics of vertebrate long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs). We also markedly reinforced the finding that TUTs and known lncRNAs accumulate during the meiotic and postmeiotic stages of spermatogenesis in mammals and that X-linked meiotic TUTs do not escape the silencing effects of meiotic sex chromosome inactivation. Importantly, we discovered that TUTs and known lncRNAs with a peak expression during meiosis define a distinct class of noncoding transcripts that exhibit exons twice as long as those of other transcripts. Our study provides new insights in transcriptional profiling of the male germline and represents a high-quality resource for novel loci expressed during spermatogenesis that significantly contributes to rat genome annotation.

An atlas of chromatoid body components.

The genome of male germ cells is actively transcribed during spermatogenesis to produce phase-specific protein-coding mRNAs and a considerable amount of different noncoding RNAs. Ribonucleoprotein (RNP) granule-mediated RNA regulation provides a powerful means to secure the quality and correct expression of the requisite transcripts. Haploid spermatids are characterized by a unique, unusually large cytoplasmic granule, the chromatoid body (CB), which emerges during the switch between the meiotic and post-meiotic phases of spermatogenesis. To better understand the role of the CB in male germ cell differentiation, we isolated CBs from mouse testes and revealed its full RNA and protein composition. We showed that the CB is mainly composed of RNA-binding proteins and other proteins involved RNA regulation. The CB was loaded with RNA, including pachytene piRNAs, a diverse set of mRNAs, and a number of uncharacterized long noncoding transcripts. The CB was demonstrated to accumulate nascent RNA during all the steps of round spermatid differentiation. Our results revealed the CB as a large germ cell-specific RNP platform that is involved in the control of the highly complex transcriptome of haploid male germ cells.