Scans for Signatures of Selection in Genomes of Wagyu and Buryat Cattle Breeds Reveal Candidate Genes and Genetic Variants for Adaptive Phenotypes and Production Traits.

Past and ongoing selection shapes the genomes of livestock breeds. Identifying such signatures of selection allows for uncovering the genetic bases of affected phenotypes, including economically important traits and environmental adaptations, for the further improvement of breed genetics to respond to climate and economic challenges. Turano-Mongolian cattle are a group of taurine breeds known for their adaptation to extreme environmental conditions and outstanding production performance. Buryat Turano-Mongolian cattle are among the few breeds adapted to cold climates and poor forage. Wagyu, on the other hand, is famous for high productivity and unique top-quality marbled meat. We used hapFLK, the de-correlated composite of multiple signals (DCMS), PBS, and FST methods to search for signatures of selection in their genomes. The scans revealed signals in genes related to cold adaptation (e.g., STAT3, DOCK5, GSTM3, and CXCL8) and food digestibility (SI) in the Buryat breed, and growth and development traits (e.g., RBFOX2 and SHOX2) and marbling (e.g., DGAT1, IQGAP2, RSRC1, and DIP2B) in Wagyu. Several putatively selected genes associated with reproduction, immunity, and resistance to pathogens were found in both breed genomes. The results of our work could be used for creating new productive adapted breeds or improving the extant breeds.

syntenyPlotteR: a user-friendly R package to visualize genome synteny, ideal for both experienced and novice bioinformaticians.

Motivation: The rapid increase in the number of chromosome-scale genome assemblies has renewed interest in chromosome evolution studies. The visualization of syntenic relationships between genomes is a crucial initial step in the study of chromosome rearrangements and evolution. There are few tools available that serve this purpose, and they can be difficult to learn. Moreover, these tools are limited in the number of species comparisons that can be visualized and the size of chromosome rearrangements identified. Thus, the development of novel visualization tools is in strong need. Results: Here, we present syntenyPlotteR, an R package developed to visualize homologous synteny blocks in a pairwise or multispecies manner. This package contains three functions that allow users to generate publication-quality representations of syntenic relationships easily and quickly between genomes of interest. Availability and implementation: SyntenyPlotteR can be installed from CRAN with the documentation found in https://farre-lab.github.io/syntenyPlotteR/.

A Multibreed Genome-Wide Association Study for Cattle Leukocyte Telomere Length.

Telomeres are terminal DNA regions of chromosomes that prevent chromosomal fusion and degradation during cell division. In cattle, leukocyte telomere length (LTL) is associated with longevity, productive lifespan, and disease susceptibility. However, the genetic basis of LTL in this species is less studied than in humans. In this study, we utilized the whole-genome resequencing data of 239 animals from 17 cattle breeds for computational leukocyte telomere length estimation and subsequent genome-wide association study of LTL. As a result, we identified 42 significant SNPs, of which eight were found in seven genes (EXOC6B, PTPRD, RPS6KC1, NSL1, AGBL1, ENSBTAG00000052188, and GPC1) when using covariates for two major breed groups (Turano-Mongolian and European). Association analysis with covariates for breed effect detected 63 SNPs, including 13 in five genes (EXOC6B, PTPRD, RPS6KC1, ENSBTAG00000040318, and NELL1). The PTPRD gene, demonstrating the top signal in analysis with breed effect, was previously associated with leukocyte telomere length in cattle and likely is involved in the mechanism of alternative lengthening of telomeres. The single nucleotide variants found could be tested for marker-assisted selection to improve telomere-length-associated traits.

Comparative studies of X chromosomes in Cervidae family.

The family Cervidae is the second most diverse in the infraorder Pecora and is characterized by variability in the diploid chromosome numbers among species. X chromosomes in Cervidae evolved through complex chromosomal rearrangements of conserved segments within the chromosome, changes in centromere position, heterochromatic variation, and X-autosomal translocations. The family Cervidae consists of two subfamilies: Cervinae and Capreolinae. Here we build a detailed X chromosome map with 29 cattle bacterial artificial chromosomes of representatives of both subfamilies: reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), gray brocket deer (Mazama gouazoubira), Chinese water deer (Hydropotes inermis) (Capreolinae); black muntjac (Muntiacus crinifrons), tufted deer (Elaphodus cephalophus), sika deer (Cervus nippon) and red deer (Cervus elaphus) (Cervinae). To track chromosomal rearrangements during Cervidae evolution, we summarized new data, and compared them with available X chromosomal maps and chromosome level assemblies of other species. We demonstrate the types of rearrangements that may have underlined the variability of Cervidae X chromosomes. We detected two types of cervine X chromosome-acrocentric and submetacentric. The acrocentric type is found in three independent deer lineages (subfamily Cervinae and in two Capreolinae tribes-Odocoileini and Capreolini). We show that chromosomal rearrangements on the X-chromosome in Cervidae occur at a higher frequency than in the entire Ruminantia lineage: the rate of rearrangements is 2 per 10 million years.

Copy Number Variants in Two Northernmost Cattle Breeds Are Related to Their Adaptive Phenotypes.

Copy number variations (CNVs) are genomic structural variants with potential functional and evolutionary effects on phenotypes. In this study, we report the identification and characterization of CNVs from the whole-genome resequencing data of two northernmost cattle breeds from Russia: the Yakut and Kholmogory cattle and their phylogenetically most related breeds, Hanwoo and Holstein, respectively. Comparisons of the CNV regions (CNVRs) among the breeds led to the identification of breed-specific CNVRs shared by cold-adapted Kholmogory and Yakut cattle. An investigation of their overlap with genes, regulatory domains, conserved non-coding elements (CNEs), enhancers, and quantitative trait loci (QTLs) was performed to further explore breed-specific biology and adaptations. We found CNVRs enriched for gene ontology terms related to adaptation to environments in both the Kholmogory and Yakut breeds and related to thermoregulation specifically in Yakut cattle. Interestingly, the latter has also been supported when exploring the enrichment of breed-specific CNVRs in the regulatory domains and enhancers, CNEs, and QTLs implying the potential contribution of CNVR to the Yakut and Kholmogory cattle breeds' adaptation to a harsh environment.

Evolution of the ancestral mammalian karyotype and syntenic regions.

Decrypting the rearrangements that drive mammalian chromosome evolution is critical to understanding the molecular bases of speciation, adaptation, and disease susceptibility. Using 8 scaffolded and 26 chromosome-scale genome assemblies representing 23/26 mammal orders, we computationally reconstructed ancestral karyotypes and syntenic relationships at 16 nodes along the mammalian phylogeny. Three different reference genomes (human, sloth, and cattle) representing phylogenetically distinct mammalian superorders were used to assess reference bias in the reconstructed ancestral karyotypes and to expand the number of clades with reconstructed genomes. The mammalian ancestor likely had 19 pairs of autosomes, with nine of the smallest chromosomes shared with the common ancestor of all amniotes (three still conserved in extant mammals), demonstrating a striking conservation of synteny for ∼320 My of vertebrate evolution. The numbers and types of chromosome rearrangements were classified for transitions between the ancestral mammalian karyotype, descendent ancestors, and extant species. For example, 94 inversions, 16 fissions, and 14 fusions that occurred over 53 My differentiated the therian from the descendent eutherian ancestor. The highest breakpoint rate was observed between the mammalian and therian ancestors (3.9 breakpoints/My). Reconstructed mammalian ancestor chromosomes were found to have distinct evolutionary histories reflected in their rates and types of rearrangements. The distributions of genes, repetitive elements, topologically associating domains, and actively transcribed regions in multispecies homologous synteny blocks and evolutionary breakpoint regions indicate that purifying selection acted over millions of years of vertebrate evolution to maintain syntenic relationships of developmentally important genes and regulatory landscapes of gene-dense chromosomes.

Resequencing the Yaroslavl cattle genomes reveals signatures of selection and a rare haplotype on BTA28 likely to be related to breed phenotypes.

The genomes of local livestock could shed light on their genetic history, mechanisms of adaptations to environments and unique genetics. Herein we look into the genetics and adaptations of the Russian native dairy Yaroslavl cattle breed using 22 resequenced individuals and comparing them with two related breeds (Russian Kholmogory and Holstein), and to the taurine set of the 1000 Bull Genomes Project (Run 9). HapFLK analysis with Kholmogory and Holstein breeds (using Yakut cattle as outgroup) resulted in 22 regions under selection (q-value < 0.01) on 11 chromosomes assigned to Yaroslavl cattle, including a strong signature of selection in the region of the KIT gene on BTA6. The FST (fixation index) with the 1000 Bull Genomes Dataset showed 48 non-overlapping top (0.1%) FST regions of which three overlapped HapFLK regions. We identified 1982 highly differentiated (FST > 0.40) missense mutations in the Yaroslavl genomes. These genes were enriched in the epidermal growth factor and calcium-binding functional categories. The top FST intervals contained eight genes with allele frequencies quite different between the Yaroslavl and Kholmogory breeds and the rest of the 1000 Bull Genomes Dataset, including KAT6B, which had a nearly Yaroslavl breed-specific deleterious missense mutation with the highest FST in our dataset (0.99). This gene is a part of a long haplotype containing other genes from FST and hapFLK analyses and with a negative association with weight and carcass traits according to the genotyping of 30 phenotyped Yaroslavl cattle individuals. Our work provides the industry with candidate genetic variants to be focused on in breed improvement efforts.

Augmin-dependent microtubule self-organization drives kinetochore fiber maturation in mammals.

Chromosome segregation in mammals relies on the maturation of a thick bundle of kinetochore-attached microtubules known as k-fiber. How k-fibers mature from initial kinetochore microtubule attachments remains a fundamental question. By combining molecular perturbations and phenotypic analyses in Indian muntjac fibroblasts containing the lowest known diploid chromosome number in mammals (2N = 6) and distinctively large kinetochores, with fixed/live-cell super-resolution coherent-hybrid stimulated emission depletion (CH-STED) nanoscopy and laser microsurgery, we demonstrate a key role for augmin in kinetochore microtubule self-organization and maturation, regardless of pioneer centrosomal microtubules. In doing so, augmin promotes kinetochore and interpolar microtubule turnover and poleward flux. Tracking of microtubule growth events within individual k-fibers reveals a wide angular dispersion, consistent with augmin-mediated branched microtubule nucleation. Augmin depletion reduces the frequency of kinetochore microtubule growth events and hampers efficient repair after acute k-fiber injury by laser microsurgery. Together, these findings underscore the contribution of augmin-mediated microtubule amplification for k-fiber self-organization and maturation in mammals.

Dinosaurs: Comparative Cytogenomics of Their Reptile Cousins and Avian Descendants.

Reptiles known as dinosaurs pervade scientific and popular culture, while interest in their genomics has increased since the 1990s. Birds (part of the crown group Reptilia) are living theropod dinosaurs. Chromosome-level genome assemblies cannot be made from long-extinct biological material, but dinosaur genome organization can be inferred through comparative genomics of related extant species. Most reptiles apart from crocodilians have both macro- and microchromosomes; comparative genomics involving molecular cytogenetics and bioinformatics has established chromosomal relationships between many species. The capacity of dinosaurs to survive multiple extinction events is now well established, and birds now have more species in comparison with any other terrestrial vertebrate. This may be due, in part, to their karyotypic features, including a distinctive karyotype of around n = 40 (~10 macro and 30 microchromosomes). Similarity in genome organization in distantly related species suggests that the common avian ancestor had a similar karyotype to e.g., the chicken/emu/zebra finch. The close karyotypic similarity to the soft-shelled turtle (n = 33) suggests that this basic pattern was mostly established before the Testudine-Archosaur divergence, ~255 MYA. That is, dinosaurs most likely had similar karyotypes and their extensive phenotypic variation may have been mediated by increased random chromosome segregation and genetic recombination, which is inherently higher in karyotypes with more and smaller chromosomes.

Whole-Genome Resequencing Points to Candidate DNA Loci Affecting Body Temperature under Cold Stress in Siberian Cattle Populations.

Despite the economic importance of creating cold resilient cattle breeds, our knowledge of the genetic basis of adaptation to cold environments in cattle is still scarce compared to information on other economically important traits. Herein, using whole-genome resequencing of animals showing contrasting phenotypes on temperature maintenance under acute cold stress combined with the existing SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) functional annotations, we report chromosomal regions and candidate SNPs controlling body temperature in the Siberian cattle populations. The SNP ranking procedure based on regional FST calculations, functional annotations, and the allele frequency difference between cold-tolerant and cold-sensitive groups of animals pointed to multiple candidate genes. Among these, GRIA4, COX17, MAATS1, UPK1B, IFNGR1, DDX23, PPT1, THBS1, CCL5, ATF1, PLA1A, PRKAG1, and NR1I2 were previously related to thermal adaptations in cattle. Other genes, for example KMT2D and SNRPA1, are known to be related to thermogenesis in mice and cold adaptation in common carp, respectively. This work could be useful for cattle breeding strategies in countries with harsh climates, including the Russian Federation.

Genotyping and Whole-Genome Resequencing of Welsh Sheep Breeds Reveal Candidate Genes and Variants for Adaptation to Local Environment and Socioeconomic Traits.

BACKGROUND: Advances in genetic tools applied to livestock breeding has prompted research into the previously neglected breeds adapted to harsh local environments. One such group is the Welsh mountain sheep breeds, which can be farmed at altitudes of 300 m above sea level but are considered to have a low productive value because of their poor wool quality and small carcass size. This is contrary to the lowland breeds which are more suited to wool and meat production qualities, but do not fare well on upland pasture. Herein, medium-density genotyping data from 317 individuals representing 15 Welsh sheep breeds were used alongside the whole-genome resequencing data of 14 breeds from the same set to scan for the signatures of selection and candidate genetic variants using haplotype- and SNP-based approaches. RESULTS: Haplotype-based selection scan performed on the genotyping data pointed to a strong selection in the regions of GBA3, PPARGC1A, APOB, and PPP1R16B genes in the upland breeds, and RNF24, PANK2, and MUC15 in the lowland breeds. SNP-based selection scan performed on the resequencing data pointed to the missense mutations under putative selection relating to a local adaptation in the upland breeds with functions such as angiogenesis (VASH1), anti-oxidation (RWDD1), cell stress (HSPA5), membrane transport (ABCA13 and SLC22A7), and insulin signaling (PTPN1 and GIGFY1). By contrast, genes containing candidate missense mutations in the lowland breeds are related to cell cycle (CDK5RAP2), cell adhesion (CDHR3), and coat color (MC1R). CONCLUSION: We found new variants in genes with potentially functional consequences to the adaptation of local sheep to their environments in Wales. Knowledge of these variations is important for improving the adaptative qualities of UK and world sheep breeds through a marker-assisted selection.

Demographic History, Adaptation, and NRAP Convergent Evolution at Amino Acid Residue 100 in the World Northernmost Cattle from Siberia.

Native cattle breeds represent an important cultural heritage. They are a reservoir of genetic variation useful for properly responding to agriculture needs in the light of ongoing climate changes. Evolutionary processes that occur in response to extreme environmental conditions could also be better understood using adapted local populations. Herein, different evolutionary histories of the world northernmost native cattle breeds from Russia were investigated. They highlighted Kholmogory as a typical taurine cattle, whereas Yakut cattle separated from European taurines approximately 5,000 years ago and contain numerous ancestral and some novel genetic variants allowing their adaptation to harsh conditions of living above the Polar Circle. Scans for selection signatures pointed to several common gene pathways related to adaptation to harsh climates in both breeds. But genes affected by selection from these pathways were mostly different. A Yakut cattle breed-specific missense mutation in a highly conserved NRAP gene represents a unique example of a young amino acid residue convergent change shared with at least 16 species of hibernating/cold-adapted mammals from six distinct phylogenetic orders. This suggests a convergent evolution event along the mammalian phylogenetic tree and fast fixation in a single isolated cattle population exposed to a harsh climate.

Comparative Mapping of the Macrochromosomes of Eight Avian Species Provides Further Insight into Their Phylogenetic Relationships and Avian Karyotype Evolution.

Avian genomes typically consist of ~10 pairs of macro- and ~30 pairs of microchromosomes. While inter-chromosomally, a pattern emerges of very little change (with notable exceptions) throughout evolution, intrachromosomal changes remain relatively poorly studied. To rectify this, here we use a pan-avian universally hybridising set of 74 chicken bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) probes on the macrochromosomes of eight bird species: common blackbird, Atlantic canary, Eurasian woodcock, helmeted guinea fowl, houbara bustard, mallard duck, and rock dove. A combination of molecular cytogenetic, bioinformatics, and mathematical analyses allowed the building of comparative cytogenetic maps, reconstruction of a putative Neognathae ancestor, and assessment of chromosome rearrangement patterns and phylogenetic relationships in the studied neognath lineages. We observe that, as with our previous studies, chicken appears to have the karyotype most similar to the ancestor; however, previous reports of an increased rate of intrachromosomal change in Passeriformes (songbirds) appear not to be the case in our dataset. The use of this universally hybridizing probe set is applicable not only for the re-tracing of avian karyotype evolution but, potentially, for reconstructing genome assemblies.

Time lapse: A glimpse into prehistoric genomics.

For the purpose of this review, 'time-lapse' refers to the reconstruction of ancestral (in this case dinosaur) karyotypes using genome assemblies of extant species. Such reconstructions are only usually possible when genomes are assembled to 'chromosome level' i.e. a complete representation of all the sequences, correctly ordered contiguously on each of the chromosomes. Recent paleontological evidence is very clear that birds are living dinosaurs, the latest example of dinosaurs emerging from a catastrophic extinction event. Non-avian dinosaurs (ever present in the public imagination through art, and broadcast media) emerged some 240 million years ago and have displayed incredible phenotypic diversity. Here we report on our recent studies to infer the overall karyotype of the Theropod dinosaur lineage from extant avian chromosome level genome assemblies. Our work first focused on determining the likely karyotype of the avian ancestor (most likely a chicken-sized, two-legged, feathered, land dinosaur from the Jurassic period) finding karyotypic similarity to the chicken. We then took the work further to determine the likely karyotype of the bird-lizard ancestor and the chromosomal changes (chiefly translocations and inversions) that occurred between then and modern birds. A combination of bioinformatics and cross-species fluorescence in situ hybridization (zoo-FISH) uncovered a considerable number of translocations and fissions from a 'lizard-like' genome structure of 2n = 36-46 to one similar to that of soft-shelled turtles (2n = 66) from 275 to 255 million years ago (mya). Remarkable karyotypic similarities between some soft-shelled turtles and chicken suggests that there were few translocations from the bird-turtle ancestor (plus ∼7 fissions) through the dawn of the dinosaurs and pterosaurs, through the theropod linage and on to most to modern birds. In other words, an avian-like karyotype was in place about 240mya when the dinosaurs and pterosaurs first emerged. We mapped 49 chromosome inversions from then to the present day, uncovering some gene ontology enrichment in evolutionary breakpoint regions. This avian-like karyotype with its many (micro)chromosomes provides the basis for variation (the driver of natural selection) through increased random segregation and recombination. It may therefore contribute to the ability of dinosaurs to survive multiple extinction events, emerging each time as speciose and diverse.

Comparative Chromosome Mapping of Musk Ox and the X Chromosome among Some Bovidae Species.

: Bovidae, the largest family in Pecora infraorder, are characterized by a striking variability in diploid number of chromosomes between species and among individuals within a species. The bovid X chromosome is also remarkably variable, with several morphological types in the family. Here we built a detailed chromosome map of musk ox (Ovibosmoschatus), a relic species originating from Pleistocene megafauna, with dromedary and human probes using chromosome painting. We trace chromosomal rearrangements during Bovidae evolution by comparing species already studied by chromosome painting. The musk ox karyotype differs from the ancestral pecoran karyotype by six fusions, one fission, and three inversions. We discuss changes in pecoran ancestral karyotype in the light of new painting data. Variations in the X chromosome structure of four bovid species nilgai bull (Boselaphustragocamelus), saola (Pseudoryxnghetinhensis), gaur (Bosgaurus), and Kirk's Dikdik (Madoquakirkii) were further analyzed using 26 cattle BAC-clones. We found the duplication on the X in saola. We show main rearrangements leading to the formation of four types of bovid X: Bovinae type with derived cattle subtype formed by centromere reposition and Antilopinae type with Caprini subtype formed by inversion in XSB3.

Extreme heterogeneity in sex chromosome differentiation and dosage compensation in livebearers.

Once recombination is halted between the X and Y chromosomes, sex chromosomes begin to differentiate and transition to heteromorphism. While there is a remarkable variation across clades in the degree of sex chromosome divergence, far less is known about the variation in sex chromosome differentiation within clades. Here, we combined whole-genome and transcriptome sequencing data to characterize the structure and conservation of sex chromosome systems across Poeciliidae, the livebearing clade that includes guppies. We found that the Poecilia reticulata XY system is much older than previously thought, being shared not only with its sister species, Poecilia wingei, but also with Poecilia picta, which diverged roughly 20 million years ago. Despite the shared ancestry, we uncovered an extreme heterogeneity across these species in the proportion of the sex chromosome with suppressed recombination, and the degree of Y chromosome decay. The sex chromosomes in P. reticulata and P. wingei are largely homomorphic, with recombination in the former persisting over a substantial fraction. However, the sex chromosomes in P. picta are completely nonrecombining and strikingly heteromorphic. Remarkably, the profound degradation of the ancestral Y chromosome in P. picta is counterbalanced by the evolution of functional chromosome-wide dosage compensation in this species, which has not been previously observed in teleost fish. Our results offer important insight into the initial stages of sex chromosome evolution and dosage compensation.

Comparative genomic analysis of six Glossina genomes, vectors of African trypanosomes.

BACKGROUND: Tsetse flies (Glossina sp.) are the vectors of human and animal trypanosomiasis throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Tsetse flies are distinguished from other Diptera by unique adaptations, including lactation and the birthing of live young (obligate viviparity), a vertebrate blood-specific diet by both sexes, and obligate bacterial symbiosis. This work describes the comparative analysis of six Glossina genomes representing three sub-genera: Morsitans (G. morsitans morsitans, G. pallidipes, G. austeni), Palpalis (G. palpalis, G. fuscipes), and Fusca (G. brevipalpis) which represent different habitats, host preferences, and vectorial capacity. RESULTS: Genomic analyses validate established evolutionary relationships and sub-genera. Syntenic analysis of Glossina relative to Drosophila melanogaster shows reduced structural conservation across the sex-linked X chromosome. Sex-linked scaffolds show increased rates of female-specific gene expression and lower evolutionary rates relative to autosome associated genes. Tsetse-specific genes are enriched in protease, odorant-binding, and helicase activities. Lactation-associated genes are conserved across all Glossina species while male seminal proteins are rapidly evolving. Olfactory and gustatory genes are reduced across the genus relative to other insects. Vision-associated Rhodopsin genes show conservation of motion detection/tracking functions and variance in the Rhodopsin detecting colors in the blue wavelength ranges. CONCLUSIONS: Expanded genomic discoveries reveal the genetics underlying Glossina biology and provide a rich body of knowledge for basic science and disease control. They also provide insight into the evolutionary biology underlying novel adaptations and are relevant to applied aspects of vector control such as trap design and discovery of novel pest and disease control strategies.

An integrated chromosome-scale genome assembly of the Masai giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis tippelskirchi).

BACKGROUND: The Masai giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis tippelskirchi) is the largest-bodied giraffe and the world's tallest terrestrial animal. With its extreme size and height, the giraffe's unique anatomical and physiological adaptations have long been of interest to diverse research fields. Giraffes are also critical to ecosystems of sub-Saharan Africa, with their long neck serving as a conduit to food sources not shared by other herbivores. Although the genome of a Masai giraffe has been sequenced, the assembly was highly fragmented and suboptimal for genome analysis. Herein we report an improved giraffe genome assembly to facilitate evolutionary analysis of the giraffe and other ruminant genomes. FINDINGS: Using SOAPdenovo2 and 170 Gbp of Illumina paired-end and mate-pair reads, we generated a 2.6-Gbp male Masai giraffe genome assembly, with a scaffold N50 of 3 Mbp. The incorporation of 114.6 Gbp of Chicago library sequencing data resulted in a HiRise SOAPdenovo + Chicago assembly with an N50 of 48 Mbp and containing 95% of expected genes according to BUSCO analysis. Using the Reference-Assisted Chromosome Assembly tool, we were able to order and orient scaffolds into 42 predicted chromosome fragments (PCFs). Using fluorescence in situ hybridization, we placed 153 cattle bacterial artificial chromosomes onto giraffe metaphase spreads to assess and assign the PCFs on 14 giraffe autosomes and the X chromosome resulting in the final assembly with an N50 of 177.94 Mbp. In this assembly, 21,621 protein-coding genes were identified using both de novo and homology-based predictions. CONCLUSIONS: We have produced the first chromosome-scale genome assembly for a Giraffidae species. This assembly provides a valuable resource for the study of artiodactyl evolution and for understanding the molecular basis of the unique adaptive traits of giraffes. In addition, the assembly will provide a powerful resource to assist conservation efforts of Masai giraffe, whose population size has declined by 52% in recent years.

Germline-restricted chromosome (GRC) is widespread among songbirds.

An unusual supernumerary chromosome has been reported for two related avian species, the zebra and Bengalese finches. This large, germline-restricted chromosome (GRC) is eliminated from somatic cells and spermatids and transmitted via oocytes only. Its origin, distribution among avian lineages, and function were mostly unknown so far. Using immunolocalization of key meiotic proteins, we found that GRCs of varying size and genetic content are present in all 16 songbird species investigated and absent from germline genomes of all eight examined bird species from other avian orders. Results of fluorescent in situ hybridization of microdissected GRC probes and their sequencing indicate that GRCs show little homology between songbird species and contain a variety of repetitive elements and unique sequences with paralogs in the somatic genome. Our data suggest that the GRC evolved in the common ancestor of all songbirds and underwent significant changes in the extant descendant lineages.

Genome-wide association study and scan for signatures of selection point to candidate genes for body temperature maintenance under the cold stress in Siberian cattle populations.

BACKGROUND: Design of new highly productive livestock breeds, well-adapted to local climatic conditions is one of the aims of modern agriculture and breeding. The genetics underlying economically important traits in cattle are widely studied, whereas our knowledge of the genetic mechanisms of adaptation to local environments is still scarce. To address this issue for cold climates we used an integrated approach for detecting genomic intervals related to body temperature maintenance under acute cold stress. Our approach combined genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and scans for signatures of selection applied to a cattle population (Hereford and Kazakh Whiteheaded beef breeds) bred in Siberia. We utilized the GGP HD150K DNA chip containing 139,376 single nucleotide polymorphism markers. RESULTS: We detected a single candidate region on cattle chromosome (BTA)15 overlapping between the GWAS results and the results of scans for selective sweeps. This region contains two genes, MSANTD4 and GRIA4. Both genes are functional candidates to contribute to the cold-stress resistance phenotype, due to their indirect involvement in the cold shock response (MSANTD4) and body thermoregulation (GRIA4). CONCLUSIONS: Our results point to a novel region on BTA15 which is a candidate region associated with the body temperature maintenance phenotype in Siberian cattle. The results of our research and the follow up studies might be used for the development of cattle breeds better adapted to cold climates of the Russian Federation and other Northern countries with similar climates.