A MHz X-ray diffraction set-up for dynamic compression experiments in the diamond anvil cell.

An experimental platform for dynamic diamond anvil cell (dDAC) research has been developed at the High Energy Density (HED) Instrument at the European X-ray Free Electron Laser (European XFEL). Advantage was taken of the high repetition rate of the European XFEL (up to 4.5 MHz) to collect pulse-resolved MHz X-ray diffraction data from samples as they are dynamically compressed at intermediate strain rates (≤103 s-1), where up to 352 diffraction images can be collected from a single pulse train. The set-up employs piezo-driven dDACs capable of compressing samples in ≥340 µs, compatible with the maximum length of the pulse train (550 µs). Results from rapid compression experiments on a wide range of sample systems with different X-ray scattering powers are presented. A maximum compression rate of 87 TPa s-1 was observed during the fast compression of Au, while a strain rate of ∼1100 s-1 was achieved during the rapid compression of N2 at 23 TPa s-1.

Single and multi-pulse based X-ray photon correlation spectroscopy.

The ability of pulsed nature of synchrotron radiation opens up the possibility of studying microsecond dynamics in complex materials via speckle-based techniques. Here, we present the study of measuring the dynamics of a colloidal system by combining single and multiple X-ray pulses of a storage ring. In addition, we apply speckle correlation techniques at various pulse patterns to collect correlation functions from nanoseconds to milliseconds. The obtained sample dynamics from all correlation techniques at different pulse patterns are in very good agreement with the expected dynamics of Brownian motions of silica nanoparticles in water. Our study will pave the way for future pulsed X-ray investigations at various synchrotron X-ray sources using individual X-ray pulse patterns.

Megahertz pulse trains enable multi-hit serial femtosecond crystallography experiments at X-ray free electron lasers.

The European X-ray Free Electron Laser (XFEL) and Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS) II are extremely intense sources of X-rays capable of generating Serial Femtosecond Crystallography (SFX) data at megahertz (MHz) repetition rates. Previous work has shown that it is possible to use consecutive X-ray pulses to collect diffraction patterns from individual crystals. Here, we exploit the MHz pulse structure of the European XFEL to obtain two complete datasets from the same lysozyme crystal, first hit and the second hit, before it exits the beam. The two datasets, separated by <1 µs, yield up to 2.1 Å resolution structures. Comparisons between the two structures reveal no indications of radiation damage or significant changes within the active site, consistent with the calculated dose estimates. This demonstrates MHz SFX can be used as a tool for tracking sub-microsecond structural changes in individual single crystals, a technique we refer to as multi-hit SFX.

Nanosecond X-ray photon correlation spectroscopy using pulse time structure of a storage-ring source.

X-ray photon correlation spectroscopy (XPCS) is a routine technique to study slow dynamics in complex systems at storage-ring sources. Achieving nanosecond time resolution with the conventional XPCS technique is, however, still an experimentally challenging task requiring fast detectors and sufficient photon flux. Here, the result of a nanosecond XPCS study of fast colloidal dynamics is shown by employing an adaptive gain integrating pixel detector (AGIPD) operated at frame rates of the intrinsic pulse structure of the storage ring. Correlation functions from single-pulse speckle patterns with the shortest correlation time of 192 ns have been calculated. These studies provide an important step towards routine fast XPCS studies at storage rings.

Segmented flow generator for serial crystallography at the European X-ray free electron laser.

Serial femtosecond crystallography (SFX) with X-ray free electron lasers (XFELs) allows structure determination of membrane proteins and time-resolved crystallography. Common liquid sample delivery continuously jets the protein crystal suspension into the path of the XFEL, wasting a vast amount of sample due to the pulsed nature of all current XFEL sources. The European XFEL (EuXFEL) delivers femtosecond (fs) X-ray pulses in trains spaced 100 ms apart whereas pulses within trains are currently separated by 889 ns. Therefore, continuous sample delivery via fast jets wastes >99% of sample. Here, we introduce a microfluidic device delivering crystal laden droplets segmented with an immiscible oil reducing sample waste and demonstrate droplet injection at the EuXFEL compatible with high pressure liquid delivery of an SFX experiment. While achieving ~60% reduction in sample waste, we determine the structure of the enzyme 3-deoxy-D-manno-octulosonate-8-phosphate synthase from microcrystals delivered in droplets revealing distinct structural features not previously reported.

Evaluation of serial crystallographic structure determination within megahertz pulse trains.

The new European X-ray Free-Electron Laser (European XFEL) is the first X-ray free-electron laser capable of delivering intense X-ray pulses with a megahertz interpulse spacing in a wavelength range suitable for atomic resolution structure determination. An outstanding but crucial question is whether the use of a pulse repetition rate nearly four orders of magnitude higher than previously possible results in unwanted structural changes due to either radiation damage or systematic effects on data quality. Here, separate structures from the first and subsequent pulses in the European XFEL pulse train were determined, showing that there is essentially no difference between structures determined from different pulses under currently available operating conditions at the European XFEL.

The Adaptive Gain Integrating Pixel Detector at the European XFEL.

The Adaptive Gain Integrating Pixel Detector (AGIPD) is an X-ray imager, custom designed for the European X-ray Free-Electron Laser (XFEL). It is a fast, low-noise integrating detector, with an adaptive gain amplifier per pixel. This has an equivalent noise of less than 1 keV when detecting single photons and, when switched into another gain state, a dynamic range of more than 104 photons of 12 keV. In burst mode the system is able to store 352 images while running at up to 6.5 MHz, which is compatible with the 4.5 MHz frame rate at the European XFEL. The AGIPD system was installed and commissioned in August 2017, and successfully used for the first experiments at the Single Particles, Clusters and Biomolecules (SPB) experimental station at the European XFEL since September 2017. This paper describes the principal components and performance parameters of the system.