Infections During Pregnancy.

Several infections have unique consequences or considerations in pregnancy. Some common infections such as urinary tract infections, influenza, sexually transmitted diseases, and vaginitis affect pregnant women differently than the general population, can cause pregnancy complications, and require treatments that are safe in pregnancy. Infections such as hepatitis B and C and human immunodeficiency virus can be transmitted vertically and therefore management focuses on decreasing perinatal transmission. Certain infections can be transmitted in utero and cause congenital infections. Classically, these were grouped together as the TORCH infections, although now several others, including varicella virus, parvovirus, and Zika virus, have also been recognized.

Late diagnosis, delayed presentation and late presentation in HIV: proposed definitions, methodological considerations and health implications.

Contemporary literature emphasizes HIV treatment across multiple stages of the care continuum, beginning with HIV testing, followed by linkage and retention in medical care. As a sizeable global population remains undiagnosed or not engaged in medical care, researchers must evaluate the earliest phases of the HIV treatment cascade in order to optimize individual health outcomes and treatment-as-prevention initiatives. Because ambiguity persists for classification of these early stages of HIV care, the aim of this review is to propose a congruous approach to defining the constructs of late diagnosis, delayed presentation and late presentation for HIV medical care, as well as focus attention on methodological considerations and associated clinical and public health implications for these entities.