Surface waves and crustal structure on Mars.

We detected surface waves from two meteorite impacts on Mars. By measuring group velocity dispersion along the impact-lander path, we obtained a direct constraint on crustal structure away from the InSight lander. The crust north of the equatorial dichotomy had a shear wave velocity of approximately 3.2 kilometers per second in the 5- to 30-kilometer depth range, with little depth variation. This implies a higher crustal density than inferred beneath the lander, suggesting either compositional differences or reduced porosity in the volcanic areas traversed by the surface waves. The lower velocities and the crustal layering observed beneath the landing site down to a 10-kilometer depth are not a global feature. Structural variations revealed by surface waves hold implications for models of the formation and thickness of the martian crust.

Improving Constraints on Planetary Interiors With PPs Receiver Functions.

Seismological constraints obtained from receiver function (RF) analysis provide important information about the crust and mantle structure. Here, we explore the utility of the free-surface multiple of the P-wave (PP) and the corresponding conversions in RF analysis. Using earthquake records, we demonstrate the efficacy of PPs-RFs before illustrating how they become especially useful when limited data is available in typical planetary missions. Using a transdimensional hierarchical Bayesian deconvolution approach, we compute robust P-to-S (Ps)- and PPs-RFs with InSight recordings of five marsquakes. Our Ps-RF results verify the direct Ps converted phases reported by previous RF analyses with increased coherence and reveal other phases including the primary multiple reverberating within the uppermost layer of the Martian crust. Unlike the Ps-RFs, our PPs-RFs lack an arrival at 7.2 s lag time. Whereas Ps-RFs on Mars could be equally well fit by a two- or three-layer crust, synthetic modeling shows that the disappearance of the 7.2 s phase requires a three-layer crust, and is highly sensitive to velocity and thickness of intra-crustal layers. We show that a three-layer crust is also preferred by S-to-P (Sp)-RFs. While the deepest interface of the three-layer crust represents the crust-mantle interface beneath the InSight landing site, the other two interfaces at shallower depths could represent a sharp transition between either fractured and unfractured materials or thick basaltic flows and pre-existing crustal materials. PPs-RFs can provide complementary constraints and maximize the extraction of information about crustal structure in data-constrained circumstances such as planetary missions.

Potential Pitfalls in the Analysis and Structural Interpretation of Seismic Data from the Mars InSight Mission.

The Seismic Experiment for Interior Structure (SEIS) of the InSight mission to Mars, has been providing direct information on Martian interior structure and dynamics of that planet since it landed. Compared to seismic recordings on Earth, ground motion measurements acquired by SEIS on Mars are made under dramatically different ambient noise conditions, but include idiosyncratic signals that arise from coupling between different InSight sensors and spacecraft components. This work is to synthesize what is known about these signal types, illustrate how they can manifest in waveforms and noise correlations, and present pitfalls in structural interpretations based on standard seismic analysis methods. We show that glitches, a type of prominent transient signal, can produce artifacts in ambient noise correlations. Sustained signals that vary in frequency, such as lander modes which are affected by variations in temperature and wind conditions over the course of the Martian Sol, can also contaminate ambient noise results. Therefore, both types of signals have the potential to bias interpretation in terms of subsurface layering. We illustrate that signal processing in the presence of identified nonseismic signals must be informed by an understanding of the underlying physical processes in order for high fidelity waveforms of ground motion to be extracted. While the origins of most idiosyncratic signals are well understood, the 2.4 Hz resonance remains debated and the literature does not contain an explanation of its fine spectral structure. Even though the selection of idiosyncratic signal types discussed in this paper may not be exhaustive, we provide guidance on best practices for enhancing the robustness of structural interpretations.

Sequencing seismograms: A panoptic view of scattering in the core-mantle boundary region.

Scattering of seismic waves can reveal subsurface structures but usually in a piecemeal way focused on specific target areas. We used a manifold learning algorithm called "the Sequencer" to simultaneously analyze thousands of seismograms of waves diffracting along the core-mantle boundary and obtain a panoptic view of scattering across the Pacific region. In nearly half of the diffracting waveforms, we detected seismic waves scattered by three-dimensional structures near the core-mantle boundary. The prevalence of these scattered arrivals shows that the region hosts pervasive lateral heterogeneity. Our analysis revealed loud signals due to a plume root beneath Hawaii and a previously unrecognized ultralow-velocity zone beneath the Marquesas Islands. These observations illustrate how approaches flexible enough to detect robust patterns with little to no user supervision can reveal distinctive insights into the deep Earth.

Seismicity on tidally active solid-surface worlds.

Tidal interactions between planets or stars and the bodies that orbit them dissipate energy in their interiors. The dissipated energy heats the interior and a fraction of that energy will be released as seismic energy. Here we formalize a model to describe the tidally-driven seismic activity on planetary bodies based on tidal dissipation. To constrain the parameters of our model we use the seismic activity of the Moon, driven by tidal dissipation from the Earth-Moon interactions. We then apply this model to predict the amount of seismic energy release and largest seismic events on other moons in our Solar System and exoplanetary bodies. We find that many moons in the Solar System should be more seismically active than the Earth's Moon and many exoplanets should exhibit more seismic activity than the Earth. Finally, we examine how temporal-spatial variations in tidal dissipation manifest as variations in the locations and timing of seismic events on these bodies.

Hyperproduction of erythropoietin in nonanemic lead-exposed children.

Lead (Pb) poisoning has numerous effects on the erythropoietic system, but the precise mechanism whereby high dose exposure causes anemia is not entirely clear. We previously reported that Pb exposure is associated with depressed serum erythropoietin (EPO) in pregnant women residing in a Pb mining town and in a nonexposed town in Kosovo, Yugoslavia. In a prospective study, we tested the hypothesis that blood Pb concentration (BPb) may be associated with depressed EPO in children. BPb, hemoglobin (Hgb), and serum EPO were measured at ages 4.5, 6.5, and 9.5 years in 211, 178, and 234 children, respectively. At 4.5 years of age, mean BPbs were 38.9 and 9.0 microg/dl in the exposed and nonexposed towns, respectively; BPbs gradually declined to 28.2 and 6.5 microg/dl, respectively, by age 9.5 years. No differences were found in Hgb at any age. At age 4. 5 years, a positive association between BPb and EPO (beta = 0.21; p = 0.0001), controlled for Hgb, was found. The magnitude of this association declined to 0.11 at age 6.5 years (p = 0.0103) and 0.03 at age 9.5 years (p = 0.39). These results were confirmed using repeated measures analyses. We concluded that in Pb-exposed children, the maintenance of normal Hgb requires hyperproduction of EPO. With advancing age (and continuing exposure), this compensatory mechanism appears to be failing, suggesting a gradual loss of renal endocrine function due to Pb exposure.

Lead exposure and intelligence in 7-year-old children: the Yugoslavia Prospective Study.

For a prospective study of lead exposure and early development, we recruited pregnant women from a lead smelter town and from an unexposed town in Yugoslavia and followed their children through 7 years of age. In this paper we consider associations between lifetime lead exposure, estimated by the area under the blood lead (BPb) versus time curve (AUC7), and intelligence, with particular concern for identifying lead's behavioral signature. The Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children-Version III (WISC-III) was administered to 309 7-year-old children, 261 of whom had complete data on intelligence, blood lead, and relevant sociodemographic covariates (i.e., Home Observation for the Measurement of the Environment (HOME), birth weight, gender, sibship size, and maternal age, ethnicity, intelligence, and education). These showed anticipated associations with 7-year intelligence, explaining 41-4% of the variance in Full Scale, Performance, and Verbal IQ. Before covariate adjustment, AUC7 was unrelated to intelligence; after adjustment, AUC7 explained a significant 2.8%-4.2% of the variance in IQ. After adjustment, a change in lifetime BPb from 10 to 30 micro/dl related to an estimated decrease of 4.3 Full Scale IQ points; estimated decreases for Verbal and Performance IQ were 3.4 and 4.5 points, respectively. AUC7 was significantly and negatively related to three WISC-III factor scores: Freedom from Distractibility, Perceptual Organization, and Verbal Comprehension; the association with Perceptual Organization was the strongest. Consistent with previous studies, the IQ/lead association is small relative to more powerful social factors. Findings offer support for lead's behavioral signature; perceptual-motor skills are significantly more sensitive to lead exposure than are the language-related aspects of intelligence.

Blood lead and blood pressure in young children.

We examined associations between blood lead concentration (BPb) and blood pressure in 282 children age 5.5 years, residing in an exposed or unexposed town in Kosovo, Yugoslavia. Mean BPb in the exposed town was 37.3 micrograms per dl (standard deviation = 12.0 micrograms per dl) and in the unexposed town was 8.7 micrograms per dl (standard deviation = 2.8 micrograms per dl). After adjustment, a 10 micrograms per dl increase in BPb was associated with a 0.5 (95% CL = -0.2, 1.3) mmHg increase in systolic and a 0.4 (95%, CL = -0.1, 0.9) mmHg increase in diastolic blood pressure. These associations, although compatible with no relation, are similar to those observed in adults; and the data are most consistent with a small association between BPb and blood pressure.

Consequences of lead exposure and iron supplementation on childhood development at age 4 years.

For a prospective study of lead exposure and early development, we recruited pregnant women from a smelter town and a nonlead-exposed town in Yugoslavia and followed them and their children through age 4. For 332 children seen at age 4, mean scores on the McCarthy Scales General Cognitive Index (GCI) in the exposed and nonexposed towns were 81.3 and 86.6, respectively; geometric mean blood lead concentrations (BPb) were 39.9 and 9.6 micrograms/dl, respectively. Potential confounders included the quality of the HOME environment; maternal age, intelligence, education, and language; birthweight and gender. These showed predictable associations with 4-year intelligence, accounting for 42.7% of the variance in GCI. Following adjustment for these variables and for concurrent Hgb, we found significant independent adverse associations between GCI and BPb's, measured at 6-month intervals since birth. At age 4, BPb accounted for an incremental 3.5% of the variance in GCI, such that the estimated loss in GCI associated with an increase in BPb from 10-25 micrograms/dl was 3.8 points. The Perceptual-Performance subscale of the McCarthy was most sensitive to Pb exposure, a result consistent with findings from prospective studies in Boston and Port Pirie.

Independent effects of lead exposure and iron deficiency anemia on developmental outcome at age 2 years.

For a prospective study of lead exposure, iron status, and infant development, we recruited infants living in a smelter town and a non-lead-exposed town in Kosovo, Yugoslavia. Among 392 infants assessed at age 2 years, the mean Mental Development Index (MDI), Bayley Scales of Infant Development, was 105.2. At age 2 years, geometric mean blood lead concentrations were 35.5 and 8.4 micrograms/dl, respectively, among infants from the exposed and nonexposed towns. After controlling for variables associated with MDI, we found significant independent associations for both blood lead and hemoglobin concentrations. For example, a rise in blood lead concentration at age 2 years from 10 to 30 micrograms/dl was associated with an estimated 2.5 point decrement in MDI (p = 0.03); statistically nonsignificant decrements were associated with blood lead levels measured at birth and at 6, 12, and 18 months of age. A decrease in hemoglobin concentration at 18 months of age from 12 to 10 gm/dl was associated with an estimated 3.4 point decrement in MDI (p = 0.02); the latter association was present in both towns, suggesting that it was due to iron deficiency anemia independent of lead exposure. The findings suggest that the brain is vulnerable to the effects of both lead exposure and anemia before 2 years of age. On a global basis, the developmental consequences of anemia may exceed those of lead exposure.