Associations of forest bird species richness with housing and landscape patterns across the USA.

In the United States, housing density has substantially increased in and adjacent to forests. Our goal in this study was to identify how housing density and human populations are associated with avian diversity. We compared these associations to those between landscape pattern and avian diversity, and we examined how these associations vary across the conterminous forested United States. Using data from the North American Breeding Bird Survey, the U.S. Census, and the National Land Cover Database, we focused on forest and woodland bird communities and conducted our analysis at multiple levels of model specificity, first using a coarse-thematic resolution (basic models), then using a larger number of fine-thematic resolution variables (refined models). We found that housing development was associated with forest bird species richness in all forested ecoregions of the conterminous United States. However, there were important differences among ecoregions. In the basic models, housing density accounted for < 5% of variance in avian species richness. In refined models, 85% of models included housing density and/or residential land cover as significant variables. The strongest guild response was demonstrated in the Adirondack-New England ecoregion, where 29% of variation in richness of the permanent resident guild was associated with housing density. Model improvements due to regional stratification were most pronounced for cavity nesters and short-distance migrants, suggesting that these guilds may be especially sensitive to regional processes. The varying patterns of association between avian richness and attributes associated with landscape structure suggested that landscape context was an important mediating factor affecting how biodiversity responds to landscape changes. Our analysis suggested that simple, broadly applicable, land use recommendations cannot be derived from our results. Rather, anticipating future avian response to land use intensification (or reversion to native vegetation) has to be conditioned on the current landscape context and the species group of interest. Our results show that housing density and residential land cover were significant predictors of forest bird species richness, and their prediction strengths are likely to increase as development continues.

Digestive responses during food restriction and realimentation in nestling house sparrows (Passer domesticus).

We used nestling house sparrows (Passer domesticus) under laboratory conditions to test for modulation of digestive efficiencies during periods of low and high food intake and tested the hypothesis that nestlings would exhibit compensatory changes in digestive efficiency following a period of food restriction. During the low intake period, nestlings were held at constant body mass for 48 h beginning on either day 3 or day 6 of life by feeding them at 50% of control rations. After 48 h of food restriction, nestlings were fed as much as they could consume, allowing the nestlings restricted at day 6 (early restriction not assessed) to consume 14% more food than control nestlings. For nestlings restricted at day 6 apparent dry mass assimilation of the entire diet was found to be 5% and 8% lower during food restriction and realimentation, respectively, compared with control nestlings that were not under- or overfed. There were no significant differences in radiolabeled starch assimilation efficiencies between control and restricted nestlings. Starch assimilation efficiencies remained constant from 3 d of age onward in control nestlings. Total starch extracted was lower during food restriction but reached a rate similar to that of control nestlings during the realimentation period. Passage times (time of first defecation, mean retention time, and mode passage time) measured with an indigestible marker were longer during food restriction and shorter during realimentation, relative to control nestlings. During realimentation there was no difference in intestinal rates of hydrolysis or mediated uptake of L-leucine compared with control nestlings. The main effect of changing food intake was apparently to alter flow rate, and hence retention time, causing slight changes in digestive efficiency. Thus, nestlings did not exhibit compensatory changes in digestion rates as implied by the hypothesis. Our finding of a lower dry mass assimilation efficiency and similar total starch assimilation during realimentation (relative to controls) helps explain why nestling house sparrows do not display compensatory growth, despite higher food intake. Our results indicate that the gut has little spare capacity to deal with increased food intake during growth following food restriction.