The cytoplasmic tails of the influenza virus spike glycoproteins are required for normal genome packaging.

Deletion of the cytoplasmic tails of the influenza A virus spike glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA), has previously been shown to result in markedly defective virion morphogenesis (Jin et al., 1997, EMBO J. 16, 1236-1247). We have found that influenza A virus preparations lacking the HA and NA cytoplasmic tails (HAt-/NAt-) have a reduced vRNA to protein content, contain an increase in cellular RNA contaminants, and exhibit increased resistance to ultraviolet (UV) inactivation. There is also a direct correlation between abnormal virion morphology and reduced infectivity. The data suggest that the HAt-/NAt- virion population contains a broader range of number of packaged RNA segments than wild-type (wt) virus. Sucrose gradient centrifugation analysis indicated the presence of a subpopulation of virions with pronounced deformation in virion morphology and reduced infectivity. The role of the HA and NA cytoplasmic tails was examined further by using a trans-complementation assay and it was found that expression of wt HA and NA from cDNAs followed by HAt-/NAt- virus infection caused the formation of a pseudotype virus with wt sedimentation properties. Taken together the data indicate that the HA and NA cytoplasmic tails affect not only virion morphology but also proper genome packaging.

The signal for clathrin-mediated endocytosis of the paramyxovirus SV5 HN protein resides at the transmembrane domain-ectodomain boundary region.

The hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) glycoprotein of the paramyxovirus SV5 is internalized from the cell surface via clathrin-coated pits. However, the cytoplasmic domain of SV5 HN does not contain a previously characterized internalization motif. A cell-surface-expressed chimeric protein (APK), consisting of the cytoplasmic tail, transmembrane (TM) domain, and 12 residues of the ectodomain of HN joined to the cytoplasmic protein pyruvate kinase is internalized, indicating that the N-terminal region of HN contains an internalization signal. Although SV5 HN is internalized at a rate similar to that of influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA) mutant Y543, which contains a degenerate tyrosine-based signal in its cytoplasmic tail, the elimination of the majority of the HN cytoplasmic tail, or substitution of the HN TM domain with leucine residues, did not affect the rate of HN internalization. The HN protein of the closely related virus, Newcastle disease virus (NDV), is not internalized from the cell surface. Working under the usual convention that the TM domain consists of the hydrophobic residues bounded by two charged residues, analysis of internalization of mutant and chimeric NDV HN molecules indicates that the first seven SV5 HN ectodomain residues are critical for internalization of HN. A glutamic acid residue (E37) that abuts this presumptive HN TM domain/ectodomain boundary is important for SV5 HN internalization.

Paramyxovirus fusion protein: characterization of the core trimer, a rod-shaped complex with helices in anti-parallel orientation.

The fusion (F) protein of the paramyxovirus SV5 contains two heptad repeat regions, HRA adjacent to the fusion peptide and HRB proximal to the transmembrane domain. Peptides, N-1 and C-1, respectively, corresponding to these heptad repeat regions form a thermostable, alpha-helical trimer of heterodimers (S. B. Joshi, R. E. Dutch, and R. A. Lamb (1998). Virology 248, 20-34). Further characterization of the N-1/C-1 complex indicated that the C-1 peptides, which are predicted to residue on the outside of the complex, are resistant to digestion by several proteases when present in the complex. Only proteinase K digested most of the C-1 peptide, though the small remaining protease protected fragment of C-1 confers extreme thermostability on the proteinase-K-resistant N-1 trimeric coiled-coil. Carboxypeptidase Y digestion of the N-1/C-1 complex indicates that the C-1 peptides associate in an antiparallel orientation relative to the N-1 peptides. Electron microscopy of the N-1/C-1 complex showed a rod-shaped complex with an average length of 9.7 nm, consistent with all of N-1 existing as an alpha helix. Mutations at heptad repeat a and d residues of N-1, positions that are predicted to point inward to the center of the N-1 trimeric coiled-coil, were found to have varying effects as analyzed by circular dichroism measurements. The mutation I137M did not affect the helical structure of the isolated N-1 peptide but did affect the thermostability of the N-1/C-1 complex. Mutations L140M and L161M perturbed the helical structure formed by N-1 in isolation but did not affect formation of a thermostable N-1/C-1 complex. Finally, a peptide, SV5 F 255-293, corresponding to a proposed leucine zipper region, was analyzed for effects on N-1, C-1, or the N-1/C-1 complex. Circular dichroism analysis demonstrated that while the presence of peptide 255-293 increased the helical signal from either N-1 or the N-1/C-1 complex, no change in thermostability was observed, indicating that this region is not a component of the final, most stable core of the F protein.

The paramyxovirus SV5 small hydrophobic (SH) protein is not essential for virus growth in tissue culture cells.

The SH gene of the paramyxovirus SV5 is located between the genes for the glycoproteins, fusion protein (F) and hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN), and the SH gene encodes a small 44-residue hydrophobic integral membrane protein (SH). The SH protein is expressed in SV5-infected cells and is oriented in membranes with its N terminus in the cytoplasm. To study the function of the SH protein in the SV5 virus life cycle, the SH gene was deleted from the infectious cDNA clone of the SV5 genome. By using the recently developed reverse genetics system for SV5, it was found that an SH-deleted SV5 (rSV5DeltaSH) could be recovered, indicating the SH protein was not essential for virus viability in tissue culture. Analysis of properties of rSV5DeltaSH indicated that lack of expression of SH protein did not alter the expression level of the other virus proteins, the subcellular localization of F and HN, or fusion competency as measured by lipid mixing assays and a new content mixing assay that did not require the use of vaccinia virus. The growth rate, infectivity, and plaque size of rSV5 and rSV5DeltaSH were found to be very similar. Although SH is shown to be a component of purified virions by immunoblotting, examination of purified rSV5DeltaSH by electron microscopy did not show an altered morphology from SV5. Thus in tissue culture cells the lack of the SV5 SH protein does not confer a recognizable phenotype.

Influenza virus hemagglutinin and neuraminidase cytoplasmic tails control particle shape.

The cytoplasmic tails of the influenza virus glycoproteins hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) are highly conserved in sequence for all virus subtypes and it is believed that assembly of this enveloped virus depends on interactions of these domains with cytoplasmic viral components. However, it is possible to rescue altered influenza viruses lacking either the HA or NA cytoplasmic tails. We have obtained an influenza virus that lacks both the cytoplasmic tail of HA and NA. Particle production is reduced approximately 10-fold but these particles, although having a fairly normal protein composition, are greatly elongated and of extended irregular shape. We propose a model in which the interactions of the cytoplasmic tails of HA and NA with an internal viral component are so important for spherical virion shape that there is dual redundancy in the interactions.

Influenza B virus NB glycoprotein is a component of the virion.

The influenza B virus NB glycoprotein is abundantly expressed at the surface of virus-infected cells. NB spans the membrane once and has an 18 amino acid ectodomain, a 22 amino acid transmembrane domain, and a 60 amino acid cytoplasmic tail. The NB N-terminal ectodomain contains two asparagine residues that are modified by the addition of palmitic N-linked carbohydrate chains, which become further modified by the addition of polylactosaminoglycan. We have now shown that NB is also modified by addition of acid. To determine if NB is incorporated into virions, metabolic labeling, immunoblotting, and immunogold electron microscopy techniques were used. NB was identified in virions grown in MDCK cells or in embryonated chicken eggs in two forms: (a) NB modified by addition of polylactosaminoglycan (NBpl), and (b) a cleaved species (NBc) that has a smaller molecular weight than unglycosylated NB (NB12). Proteinase K digestion of purified virions converted NBpl to NBc. Examination of virions purified by isopycnic centrifugation by electronmicroscopy and immunogold staining, using an affinity-purified antibody raised to a peptide derived from the NB cytoplasmic tail, showed staining for NB in influenza B virions. Quantification of the amount of NB in purified virions using two unrelated biochemical methods indicated there are on average approximately 15-100 molecules of NB per virion. Although the number of NB molecules incorporated on average into an influenza B virus particle is small, this finding is reminiscent of the number of molecules (14-68 monomers) found on average of the M2 integral membrane protein of influenza A virus.

The ion channel activity of the influenza virus M2 protein affects transport through the Golgi apparatus.

High level expression of the M2 ion channel protein of influenza virus inhibits the rate of intracellular transport of the influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA) and that of other integral membrane glycoproteins. HA coexpressed with M2 is properly folded, is not associated with GRP78-BiP, and trimerizes with the same kinetics as when HA is expressed alone. Analysis of the rate of transport of HA from the ER to the cis and medial golgi compartments and the TGN indicated that transport through the Golgi apparatus is delayed. Uncleaved HA0 was not expressed at the cell surface, and accumulation HA at the plasma membrane was reduced to 75-80% of control cells. The delay in intracellular transport of HA on coexpression of M2 was not observed in the presence of the M2-specific ion channel blocker, amantadine, indicating that the Golgi transport delay is due to the M2 protein ion channel activity equilibrating pH between the Golgi lumen and the cytoplasm, and not due to saturation of the intracellular transport machinery. The Na+/H+ ionophore, monensin, which also equilibrates pH between the Golgi lumen and the cytoplasm, caused a similar inhibition of intracellular transport as M2 protein expression did for HA and other integral membrane glycoproteins. EM data showed a dilation of Golgi cisternae in cells expressing the M2 ion channel protein. Taken together, the data suggest a similarity of effects of M2 ion channel activity and monensin on intracellular transport through the Golgi apparatus.

Palmitylation of the influenza virus hemagglutinin (H3) is not essential for virus assembly or infectivity.

The C terminus of the influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA) contains three cysteine residues that are highly conserved among HA subtypes, two in the cytoplasmic tail and one in the transmembrane domain. All of these C-terminal cysteine residues are modified by the covalent addition of palmitic acid through a thio-ether linkage. To investigate the role of HA palmitylation in virus assembly, we used reverse genetics technique to introduce substitutions and deletions that affected the three conserved cysteine residues into the H3 subtype HA. The rescued viruses contained the HA of subtype H3 (A/Udorn/72) in a subtype H1 helper virus (A/WSN/33) background. Rescued viruses which do not contain a site for palmitylation (by residue substitution or substitution combined with deletion of the cytoplasmic tail) were obtained. Rescued virions had a normal polypeptide composition. Analysis of the kinetics of HA low-pH-induced fusion of the mutants showed no major change from that of virus with wild-type (wt) HA. The PFU/HA ratio of the rescued viruses grown in eggs ranged from that of virus with wt HA to 16-fold lower levels, whereas the PFU/HA ratio of the rescued viruses grown in MDCK cells varied only 2-fold from that of virus with wt HA. However, except for one rescued mutant virus (CAC), the mutant viruses were attenuated in mice, as indicated by a > or = 400-fold increase in the 50% lethal dose. Interestingly, except for one mutant virus (CAC), all of the rescued mutant viruses were restricted for replication in the upper respiratory tract but much less restricted in the lungs. Thus, the HA cytoplasmic tail may play a very important role in the generation of virus that can replicate in multiple cell types.

The paramyxovirus simian virus 5 hemagglutinin-neuraminidase glycoprotein, but not the fusion glycoprotein, is internalized via coated pits and enters the endocytic pathway.

The hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) and fusion (F) glycoproteins of the paramyxovirus simian virus 5 (SV5) are expressed on the surface of virus-infected cells. Although the F protein was found to be expressed stably, the HN protein was internalized from the plasma membrane. HN protein lacks known internalization signals in its cytoplasmic domain that are common to many integral membrane proteins that are internalized via clathrin-coated pits. Thus, the cellular pathway of HN protein internalization was examined. Biochemical analysis indicated that HN was lost from the cell surface with a t1/2 of approximately 45-50 min and turned over with a t1/2 of approximately 2 h. Immunofluorescent analysis showed internalized SV5 HN in vesicle-like structures in a juxtanuclear pattern coincident with the localization of ovalbumin. In contrast the SV5 F glycoprotein and the HN glycoprotein of the highly related parainfluenza virus 3 (hPIV-3) were found only on the cell surface. Immunogold staining of HN on the surface of SV5-infected CV-1 cells and examination using electron microscopy, showed heavy surface labeling that gradually decreased with time. Concomitantly, gold particles were detected in the endosomal system and with increasing time, gold-labeled structures having the morphology of lysosomes were observed. On the plasma membrane approximately 5% of the gold-labeled HN was found in coated pits. The inhibition of the pinching-off of coated pits from the plasma membrane by cytosol acidification significantly reduced HN internalization. Internalized HN was co-localized with gold-conjugated transferrin, a marker for the early endosomal compartments, and with gold-conjugated bovine serum albumin, a marker for late endosomal compartments. Taken together, these data strongly suggest that the HN glycoprotein is internalized via clathrin-coated pits and delivered to the endocytic pathway.

The paramyxovirus SV5 V protein binds two atoms of zinc and is a structural component of virions.

The paramyxovirus simian virus 5 (SV5) cysteine-rich V protein has been shown to be a virus structural protein by analysis of the polypeptides of purified SV5 virions. In addition, the V protein has been identified as a component of the virus nucleocapsid core both by the analysis of the polypeptides present in radioactively labeled preparations of purified nucleocapsids and by immunoelectron microscopy. Quantitative autoradiography was used to determine that there are approximately 350 molecules of the V protein in virions. The V protein has been purified from V recombinant baculovirus-infected insect cells and by using inductively coupled argon plasma atomic emission spectroscopy it was found that each molecule of V binds two zinc atoms.

The influenza virus hemagglutinin cytoplasmic tail is not essential for virus assembly or infectivity.

The influenza A virus hemagglutinin (HA) glycoprotein contains a cytoplasmic tail which consists of 10-11 amino acids, of which five residues re conserved in all subtypes of influenza A virus. As the cytoplasmic tail is not needed for intracellular transport to the plasma membrane, it has become virtually dogma that the role of the cytoplasmic tail is in forming protein-protein interactions necessary for creating an infectious budding virus. To investigate the role of the HA cytoplasmic tail in virus replication, reverse genetics was used to obtain an influenza virus that lacked an HA cytoplasmic tail. The rescued virus contained the HA of subtype A/Udorn/72 in a helper virus (subtype A/WSN/33) background. Biochemical analysis indicated that only the introduced tail- HA was incorporated into virions and these particles lacked a detectable fragment of the helper virus HA. The tail- HA rescued virus assembled and replicated almost as efficiently as virions containing wild-type HA, suggesting that the cytoplasmic tail is not essential for the virus assembly process. Nonetheless, a revertant virus was isolated, suggesting that possession of a cytoplasmic tail does confer an advantage.

Distinctive properties of the purified Na-Ca exchanger from rod outer segments.

The Na-Ca exchanger of rod outer segments plays an important role in the regulation of Ca levels in photoreceptor cells. While this transporter shares functional properties with other Na-Ca exchangers, it has several unique features. The purified ROS exchanger migrates as a single band at 220 kDa in SDS-polyacrylamide gels, indicating that the unit size of its polypeptide is larger than other known Na-Ca exchangers (and most transporters). A specific antiserum to the ROS exchanger does not bind to the Na-Ca exchangers found in sarcolemmal vesicles or brain synaptic plasma membranes. Similarly, polyclonal antiserum specific for the cardiac exchanger does not react with ROS or brain proteins. The ROS exchanger requires K for transport activity. By incorporating the purified exchanger into proteoliposomes and measuring the sequestration of K, the actual transport of K is demonstrated. A stoichiometry of 4Na:1Ca,1K for the exchanger of ROS has been measured.

Ultrastructural distribution of ribonucleoprotein complexes during mitosis. snRNP antigens are contained in mitotic granule clusters.

The great majority of snRNP and hnRNP ribonucleoproteins have been shown to be confined to the nucleus except during periods of cell division. We have now determined the fine structure distribution of polypeptides associated with these RNP complexes during interphase and mitosis in mammalian tissue culture cells using immunoelectron microscopy. Many hnRNP antigens are found at the periphery of heterochromatin masses, known to be the sites of non-rRNP proteins initially surround areas of condensing chromatin and later become generally dispersed throughout the mitotic cell. The Sm protein antigens of snRNP complexes are found diffusely distributed in interphase nuclei as well as concentrated in fields of interchromatin granules (ICG). Proteins of snRNP complexes, unlike those of hnRNP, are associated with discernible cellular structures during mitosis. By prometaphase/metaphase, dense granular clusters are observed to contain a high concentration of snRNPs. These mitotic granule clusters (MGCs) are often in close proximity to chromosomal masses by late anaphase/telophase. The MGC structures are morphologically similar to interchromatin granule fields found in interphase nuclei. Furthermore, like interchromatin granules, they are sites of a high concentration of snRNP antigens and do not contain detectable hnRNP proteins or DNA.

Redistribution of nuclear ribonucleoprotein antigens during herpes simplex virus infection.

Infection of human epidermoid carcinoma No. 2 cells with herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) leads to a reorganization of antigens associated with both the small and heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein complexes (snRNP and hnRNP). The hnRNP core protein antigens remain associated with the host chromatin, which appears to collapse into internal aggregates and along the nuclear envelope. More striking is the formation of prominent clusters of snRNP antigens (both general and U1 snRNP specific), which appear to condense throughout the nucleus then migrate to the periphery. These snRNP clusters have been identified at the fine structure level by immuno-electron microscopy. The HSV-1 presumed transcriptional activator ICP4, DNA-binding protein ICP8, and two capsid proteins ICP5 and p40 are not detectably associated with the snRNP clusters. Similar reorganization of snRNP occurs with HSV-2 and upon infection of African green monkey VERO cells with HSV-1. We speculate that the snRNP clusters arise from an increase in size and density of the interchromatin granule region of the host cell as a result of the partial inactivation of snRNP and host pre-mRNA splicing.

Changes in heterogeneous nuclear RNP core polypeptide complements during the cell cycle.

Mammalian heterogeneous nuclear RNP (hnRNP) subcomplexes are shown to be comprised of 14-17 basic A and B core group polypeptides (chrp) when subjected to two-dimensional immunoblot analysis. These proteins are normally confined to the nucleus but are distributed throughout the cell during mitosis. However, not all of the 17 protein spots are observed for all stages of the cell cycle. HeLa cell populations have been synchronized and the basic hnRNP core protein complement examined during S, G2, mitosis, and G1. During cell division several distinct chrp polypeptide species at 35 and 37 kD appear, while another of 37 kD and a chrp of 38 kD are diminished. These altered chrp complements are not due to any effects induced by thymidine treatment but appear to be physiological changes in the chrp polypeptide modification state. The new charge isomers found during mitosis are not the result of selective phosphorylation of the chrp polypeptides. However the nature of the modifications has yet to be determined. The mitosis-specific modified forms of the chrp polypeptides are found in the cytoplasmic fraction derived from mitotic cell populations. When this fraction is centrifuged upon sucrose density gradients the modified chrp polypeptides sediment from 30-200S in a distribution similar to that of hnRNP complexes isolated from the nuclei of randomly dividing cell populations. RNase digestion experiments indicate that the general substructure of the RNA/protein complexes in mitotic cell cytoplasm is similar to that of nuclear hnRNP isolated from unsynchronized cells or tissue.

Monoclonal antibodies to heterogeneous nuclear RNA-protein complexes. The core proteins comprise a conserved group of related polypeptides.

Hybridomas secreting monoclonal antibodies that react with heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein (hnRNP) core proteins have been isolated by immunizing BALB/c mice with RNP particles isolated from chicken and screening the fusion products with mouse RNP complexes. The antibodies show varying affinities for the hnRNP core proteins that have been blotted onto nitrocellulose. The majority of the immunoglobulins react with all the core group proteins although several recognize subsets of the hnRNP polypeptides. The clones are specific for different antigenic determinants as shown by their inability to compete with one another for binding sites. A mild proteolytic digestion of hnRNP proteins generates fragments that have uniformly lost 12 kDa and contain the antigenic determinants recognized by several of the monoclonal antibodies. Thus, it appears the core proteins comprise a family of related polypeptides possessing underlying structural similarities. Polypeptides similar in number and molecular weights that have antigenic determinants cross-reactive with those of mouse RNP have been found in a number of organisms, thereby emphasizing their possible common structure and function in higher eukaryotes. No difference in the distribution within the cell of individual or groups of core proteins has so far been detected by indirect immunofluorescence.