Metals on the Menu-Analyzing the Presence, Importance, and Consequences.

Metals are integral components of the natural environment, and their presence in the food supply is inevitable and complex. While essential metals such as sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron, zinc, and copper are crucial for various physiological functions and must be consumed through the diet, others, like lead, mercury, and cadmium, are toxic even at low concentrations and pose serious health risks. This study comprehensively analyzes the presence, importance, and consequences of metals in the food chain. We explore the pathways through which metals enter the food supply, their distribution across different food types, and the associated health implications. By examining current regulatory standards for maximum allowable levels of various metals, we highlight the importance of ensuring food safety and protecting public health. Furthermore, this research underscores the need for continuous monitoring and management of metal content in food, especially as global agricultural and food production practices evolve. Our findings aim to inform dietary recommendations, food fortification strategies, and regulatory policies, ultimately contributing to safer and more nutritionally balanced diets.

Pesticide Use and Degradation Strategies: Food Safety, Challenges and Perspectives.

While recognizing the gaps in pesticide regulations that impact consumer safety, public health concerns associated with pesticide contamination of foods are pointed out. The strategies and research directions proposed to prevent and/or reduce pesticide adverse effects on human health and the environment are discussed. Special attention is paid to organophosphate pesticides, as widely applied insecticides in agriculture, veterinary practices, and urban areas. Biotic and abiotic strategies for organophosphate pesticide degradation are discussed from a food safety perspective, indicating associated challenges and potential for further improvements. As food systems are endangered globally by unprecedented challenges, there is an urgent need to globally harmonize pesticide regulations and improve methodologies in the area of food safety to protect human health.

A new acetylcholinesterase allosteric site responsible for binding voluminous negatively charged molecules - the role in the mechanism of AChE inhibition.

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors are important in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Two inhibitors, 12-tungstosilicic acid (WSiA) and 12-tungstophosphoric acid (WPA), which have polyoxometalate (POM) type structure, have been shown to inhibit AChE activity in nM concentration. Circular dichroism and tryptophan fluorescence spectroscopy demonstrated that the AChE inhibition was not accompanied by significant changes in the secondary structure of the enzyme. The molecular docking approach has revealed a new allosteric binding site, termed ß-allosteric site (ß-AS), which is considered responsible for the inhibition of AChE by POMs. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study reporting a new allosteric site that is considered responsible for AChE inhibition by voluminous and negatively charged molecules such as POMs. The selected POMs were further subjected to genotoxicity testing using human peripheral blood cells as a model system. It was shown that WSiA and WPA induced a mild cytostatic but not genotoxic effects in human lymphocytes, which indicates their potential to be used as medicinal drugs. The identification of non-toxic compounds capable of binding to an allosteric site that so far has not been considered responsible for enzyme inhibition could be fundamental for the development of new drug design strategies and the discovery of more efficient AChE modulators.

Conjugates of Gold Nanoparticles and Antitumor Gold(III) Complexes as a Tool for Their AFM and SERS Detection in Biological Tissue.

Citrate-capped gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) were functionalized with three distinct antitumor gold(III) complexes, e.g., [Au(N,N)(OH)2][PF6], where (N,N)=2,2'-bipyridine; [Au(C,N)(AcO)2], where (C,N)=deprotonated 6-(1,1-dimethylbenzyl)-pyridine; [Au(C,N,N)(OH)][PF6], where (C,N,N)=deprotonated 6-(1,1-dimethylbenzyl)-2,2'-bipyridine, to assess the chance of tracking their subcellular distribution by atomic force microscopy (AFM), and surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) techniques. An extensive physicochemical characterization of the formed conjugates was, thus, carried out by applying a variety of methods (density functional theory-DFT, UV/Vis spectrophotometry, AFM, Raman spectroscopy, and SERS). The resulting gold(III) complexes/AuNPs conjugates turned out to be pretty stable. Interestingly, they exhibited a dramatically increased resonance intensity in the Raman spectra induced by AuNPs. For testing the use of the functionalized AuNPs for biosensing, their distribution in the nuclear, cytosolic, and membrane cell fractions obtained from human lymphocytes was investigated by AFM and SERS. The conjugates were detected in the membrane and nuclear cell fractions but not in the cytosol. The AFM method confirmed that conjugates induced changes in the morphology and nanostructure of the membrane and nuclear fractions. The obtained results point out that the conjugates formed between AuNPs and gold(III) complexes may be used as a tool for tracking metallodrug distribution in the different cell fractions.

The Genomic Impact of European Colonization of the Americas.

The human genetic diversity of the Americas has been affected by several events of gene flow that have continued since the colonial era and the Atlantic slave trade. Moreover, multiple waves of migration followed by local admixture occurred in the last two centuries, the impact of which has been largely unexplored. Here, we compiled a genome-wide dataset of ∼12,000 individuals from twelve American countries and ∼6,000 individuals from worldwide populations and applied haplotype-based methods to investigate how historical movements from outside the New World affected (1) the genetic structure, (2) the admixture profile, (3) the demographic history, and (4) sex-biased gene-flow dynamics of the Americas. We revealed a high degree of complexity underlying the genetic contribution of European and African populations in North and South America, from both geographic and temporal perspectives, identifying previously unreported sources related to Italy, the Middle East, and to specific regions of Africa.

UV-C light irradiation enhances toxic effects of chlorpyrifos and its formulations.

UV-C irradiation is widely used in the food industry. However, the health effects from dietary exposure to the irradiated pesticide residues retained in foodstuffs are underestimated. In this study, technical chlorpyrifos (TCPF) and its oil in water (EW) and emulsifiable concentrate (EC) formulations were irradiated by UV-C, and their photodegradation products were subjected to toxicity assessment, including determination of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, genotoxicity and oxidative stress using human blood cells as a model system. Toxicity studies were performed using the chlorpyrifos concentrations in the range of those proposed as the maximum residue levels in plant commodities. TCPF, EW and EC photodegradation products induced DNA damage and oxidative stress, and their genotoxicity did not decrease as a function of irradiation time. Irradiated TCPF and EC are more potent AChE inhibitors than irradiated EW. Accordingly, the application of UV-C irradiation must be considered when processing the plants previously treated with chlorpyrifos formulations.

Copper-polyaniline nanocomposite: Role of physicochemical properties on the antimicrobial activity and genotoxicity evaluation.

Copper nanoparticles (Cu NPs) have proven to own excellent antimicrobial efficacy, but the problems of easy oxidation and aggregation limit their practical application. Here, nanocomposite based on polyaniline (PANI) and Cu NPs solved this problem and brought additional physicochemical properties that are markedly advantageous for antimicrobial applications. Current work exploits this potential, to examine its time- and concentration-dependent antimicrobial activity, employing E. coli, S. aureus, and C. albicans as a model microbial species. Regarding the presence of polaronic charge carriers in the fibrous polyaniline network, effects of Cu NPs' size and their partially oxidized surfaces (the data were confirmed by HRTEM, FESEM, XRD, Raman and XPS analysis), as well as rapid copper ions release, Cu-PANI nanocomposite showed efficient bactericidal and fungicidal activities at the concentrations ≤1 ppm, within the incubation time of 2 h. Beside the quantitative analysis, the high levels of cellular disruption for all tested microbes were evidenced by atomic force microscopy. Moreover, the minimum inhibitory and bactericidal concentrations of the Cu-PANI nanocomposite were lower than those reported for other nanocomposites. Using such low concentrations is recognized as a good way to avoid its toxicity toward the environment. For this purpose, Cu-PANI nanocomposite is tested for its genotoxicity and influence on the oxidative status of the human cells in vitro.

Ruthenium(II)-N-alkyl phenothiazine complexes as potential anticancer agents.

In recent years, the search for effective anticancer compounds based on transition metal complexes has been the focus of medical investigations. The synergy between the ruthenium(II) and N-alkylphenothiazine counter-ions (chlorpromazine hydrochloride, thioridazine hydrochloride and trifluoperazine dihydrochloride, respectively) through the formation of three different complexes (1-3) was investigated. We explored whether the selected counter-ions and complexes might affect redox homeostasis and genome integrity of normal human blood cells, and induce an inhibition of Na+/K+-ATPase and AChE at pharmacologically relevant doses. Our results have shown that counter-ions and complexes did not affect the activity of Na+/K+-ATPase, while AChE activity was inhibited in a dose-dependent manner. All investigated compounds disturbed the viability and redox homeostasis of lymphocytes. Complexes 1 and 2 displayed potent cytotoxic and prooxidant action while complex 3 behaved as a weaker genotoxic inducer. Still, the tested complexes appeared to be less genotoxic and more cytostatic than the corresponding counter-ions. The effects of selected complexes were also tested in PC12 and U2OS cancer cells with special attention being given to the ability of phenothiazines to affect dopamine D2 receptors. Using the confocal laser scanning microscopy, we observed that all the complexes reduced cell viability. Although all investigated complexes have been bound to the dopamine receptor D2-eGFP, only complex 3 reduced its surface density and increased its lateral mobility in investigated cell lines. Albeit the role of alternative targets for complex 3 cannot be ruled out, its effects should be further examined as potential treatment strategy against cancer cells that overexpress D2.

Modulators of Acetylcholinesterase Activity: From Alzheimer's Disease to Anti-Cancer Drugs.

BACKGROUND: Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is involved in the termination of impulse transmission by rapid hydrolysis of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in numerous cholinergic pathways in the central and peripheral nervous systems. The enzyme inactivation leads to acetylcholine accumulation, hyperstimulation of nicotinic and muscarinic receptors, and disrupted neurotransmission. Hence, acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, interacting with the enzyme as their primary target, are applied as relevant drugs for different neurodegenerative diseases (such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's) as well as toxins. At the same time, there are increasing evidence that in non-neuronal context, AChE is involved in the regulation of cell proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis and cell-cell interaction. An irregular expression of AChE has been found in different types of tumors, suggesting the involvement of AChE in the regulation of tumor development. Having all this in mind, there is a possibility that some AChE inhibitors could be used as anti-cancer agents. OBJECTIVE: This contribution will discuss a broad range of possible application of different AChE inhibitors as drugs, from well-known anti-Alzheimer's disease drugs to their use in cancer treatment in future. Emphasis will be put on various known AChE inhibitors classes, whose application as drugs could be controversy, as well as on newly investigated natural products, which can also modulate AChE activity. CONCLUSION: It is not clear a patient treated for neurodegenerative condition prone to increased risk for some types of cancer and vice versa. This is necessary to keep in mind during rational drug design process for all therapies, which are based on AChE as a target molecule.

The impact of concentration and administration time on the radiomodulating properties of undecylprodigiosin in vitro.

Undecylprodigiosin pigment (UPP) is reported to display cytotoxic activity towards various types of tumours. Nevertheless, its efficacy in modifying the cellular response to ionising radiation is still unknown. In this study, the radiomodulating effects of UPP were investigated. The effects of UPP were assessed in vitro by treating cultures of human peripheral blood with UPP and ionising radiation using two treatment regimens, the UPP pre-irradiation treatment and UPP post-irradiation treatment. The activity of UPP was investigated evaluating its effects on the radiation-induced micronuclei formation, cell proliferation, and induction of apoptosis. The redox modulating effects of UPP were examined measuring the catalase activity and the level of malondialdehyde, as a measure of oxidative stress. The results showed that UPP effects on cellular response to ionising radiation depend on its concentration and the timing of its administration. At low concentration, the UPP displayed radioprotective effects in γ-irradiated human lymphocytes while at higher concentrations, it acted as a radiosensitiser enhancing either mitotic catastrophe or apoptosis depending on the treatment regimen. The UPP modified redox processes in cells, particularly when it was employed prior to γ-irradiation. Our data highlight the importance of further research of the potential of UPP to sensitize tumour cells to radiation therapy by inhibiting pathways that lead to treatment resistance.

Biological effects of bacterial pigment undecylprodigiosin on human blood cells treated with atmospheric gas plasma in vitro.

It is known that some bacterial species are more resilient to different kinds of irradiation due to the naturally developed protective mechanisms and compounds such as pigments. On the other hand, reasoned tissue engineering using plasma remains a critical task and requires very precise control of plasma parameters in order to mitigate its potential detrimental effects. Here we isolated a natural protective agent, microbially produced undecylprodigiosin ((5'Z)-4'-methoxy-5'-[(5-undecyl-1H-pyrrol-2-yl)methylene]-1H,5'H-2,2'-bipyrrole), and investigated its effects on human blood cells independently and in combination with plasma. Two approaches were applied; the first, undecylprodigiosin (UP pigment) was added to the blood cultures, which then were exposed to plasma (pre-treatment); and the second- the blood cultures were exposed to plasma and then treated with pigment (post-treatment). The interactions of plasma and UP pigment with blood cells were investigated by conducting a series of biological tests providing the information regarding their genotoxicity, cytotoxicity and redox modulating activities. The exposure of cells to plasma induced oxidative stress as well as certain genotoxic and cytotoxic effects seen as elevated micronuclei incidence, decreased cell proliferation and enhanced apoptosis. In blood cultures treated with UP pigment alone, we found that both cytotoxic and protective effects could be induced depending on the concentration used. The highest UP pigment concentration increased lipid peroxidation and the incidence of micronuclei by more than 70% with maximal suppression of cell proliferation. On the contrary, we found that the lowest UP pigment concentration displayed protective effects. In combined treatments with plasma and UP pigment, we found that UP pigment could provide spatial shielding to plasma exposure. In the pre-treatment approach, the incidence of micronuclei was reduced by 35.52% compared to control while malondialdehyde level decreased by 36% indicating a significant mitigation of membrane damage induced by plasma. These results open perspectives for utilizing UP pigment for protection against overexposures in the field of plasma medicine.

Biological activity and binding properties of [Ru(II)(dcbpy)2Cl2] complex to bovine serum albumin, phospholipase A2 and glutathione.

Ruthenium compounds are highly regarded as metallo-drug candidates. Many studies have focused their attention on the interaction between ruthenium complexes with their possible biological targets. The interaction of ruthenium complexes with transport proteins, enzymes and peptides is of great importance for understanding their biodistribution and mechanism of action, therefore, the development of an anti-cancer therapy involving ruthenium complexes has recently shifted from DNA targeting towards protein targeting. With the aim of gaining insight into possible interactions between ruthenium complexes with biologically relevant proteins, we have studied the interaction of cis-dichlorobis(2,2'-bipyridyl-4,4'-dicarboxylic acid)ruthenium(II) complex [Ru(II)(dcbpy)2Cl2], which previously showed good potency in photo-dynamic chemotherapy, with bovine serum albumin (BSA), phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and glutathione (GSH). Binding constants and possible number of binding sites to mentioned proteins and peptide are investigated by ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy and Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization Mass Spectrometry (MALDI TOF MS). The complex binding affinities were in the following order: PLA2 > BSA > GSH. Moreover, genotoxic profile of the complex, tested on peripheral blood lymphocytes as a model system, was also promising.

Myeloperoxidase Inhibitors as Potential Drugs.

Myeloperoxidase (MPO) is an important member of the haem peroxidase - cyclooxygenase superfamily. This enzyme is physiologically expressed in circulating neutrophils, monocytes and some tissue macrophages including microglia. MPO plays an essential role in the antimicrobial and antiviral system of humans. The microbicidal activity of MPO exists due to its capability to oxidize halide and pseudohalide ions (CI(-), Br(-), I(-) and SCN(-)) by H2O2, thereby producing respective hypohalous acids (HOX). During the phagocytosis of pathogens, azurophilic granules release their content together with MPO into phagolysosomes. On the other hand, MPO can be discharged outside the phagocytes. Due to this, tissue damage during inflammation is greatly promoted by MPO-derived oxidants. Regarding its activity, MPO is a key factor in a great number of conditions within the group of cardiovascular diseases, inflammatory diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, kidney diseases and immune-mediated diseases. Therefore, MPO and its downstream inflammatory pathways might be attractive targets for both prognostic and therapeutic intervention in the prophylaxis of all mentioned illnesses. Nowadays, structure and reaction mechanism of MPO are known, which enable rational strategy in the development of specific MPO inhibitors that still preserve MPO activity during host defense from bacteria, but hinder pathophysiologically persistent activation of MPO. Various methods for MPO activity inhibition and unfavorable effects of MPO-derived oxidants remodeling will be discussed. Emphasis will be put on various known inhibitors, as well as on newly investigated natural products, which can also inhibit MPO activity.

BAC-probes applied for characterization of fragile sites (FS).

Genomic instability tends to occur at specific genomic regions known as common fragile sites (FS). FS are evolutionarily conserved and generally involve late replicating regions with AT-rich sequences. The possible correlation between some FS and cancer-related breakpoints emphasizes on the importance of understanding the mechanisms of chromosomal instability at these sites. Although about 230 FS have already been mapped cytogenetically, only a few of them have been characterized on a molecular level. In this chapter, we provide a protocol for mapping of common FS using bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) probes in fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and suggest the usage of lymphocytes from Fanconi anemia patients as a model system. In the latter, rare FS are expressed much more frequently than in, for example, aphidicolin-induced blood lymphocyte preparations. Knowing the exact location of FS enables the molecular comparison of their location and breakpoints that appear during evolution, cancer development and inherited disorders.

Standing at the gateway to Europe--the genetic structure of Western balkan populations based on autosomal and haploid markers.

Contemporary inhabitants of the Balkan Peninsula belong to several ethnic groups of diverse cultural background. In this study, three ethnic groups from Bosnia and Herzegovina - Bosniacs, Bosnian Croats and Bosnian Serbs - as well as the populations of Serbians, Croatians, Macedonians from the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Montenegrins and Kosovars have been characterized for the genetic variation of 660 000 genome-wide autosomal single nucleotide polymorphisms and for haploid markers. New autosomal data of the 70 individuals together with previously published data of 20 individuals from the populations of the Western Balkan region in a context of 695 samples of global range have been analysed. Comparison of the variation data of autosomal and haploid lineages of the studied Western Balkan populations reveals a concordance of the data in both sets and the genetic uniformity of the studied populations, especially of Western South-Slavic speakers. The genetic variation of Western Balkan populations reveals the continuity between the Middle East and Europe via the Balkan region and supports the scenario that one of the major routes of ancient gene flows and admixture went through the Balkan Peninsula.

Radiation-induced mitotic catastrophe in FANCD2 primary fibroblasts.

PURPOSE: As the Fanconi anemia (FA) pathway is required for appropriate cell cycle progression through mitosis and the completion of cell division, the aim of the present study was to determine the destiny of FA cells after irradiation in vitro and to elucidate any difference in radiosensitivity between FA and control cells. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Analyses of phosphorylated histone H2AX (γ-H2AX) foci, micronuclei formation and cell cycle analysis were performed in unirradiated (0 min) and irradiated primary FA fibroblasts and in a control group at different post-irradiation times (30 min, 2 h, 5 h and 24 h). RESULTS: The accumulation of γ-H2AX foci in irradiated FA fibroblasts was observed. At 24 h post-irradiation, 57% of FA cells were γ-H2AX foci-positive, significantly higher than in the control (p < 0.01). The cell cycle analysis has shown the transient G2/M arrest in irradiated FA fibroblasts. The portion of cells in the G2/M phase showed initial increase at 30 min post-irradiation and afterwards decreased over time reaching the pretreatment level 24 h after irradiation. Irradiated FA fibroblasts progressed to abnormal mitosis, as is shown by the production of cells with different nuclear morphologies from binucleated to multinucleated surrounded with micronuclei, and also by a high percentage of foci-positive micronuclei. The majority of radiation-induced micronuclei were γ-H2AX foci-positive, indicating that radiation-induced micronuclei contain fragments of damaged chromosomes. In contrast, in the control group, most of the micronuclei were classified as γ-H2AX foci-negative, which indicates that cells with unrepaired damage were blocked before entering mitosis. CONCLUSION: The results clearly indicate that mitotic catastrophe might be an important cell-death mechanism involved in the response of FA fibroblasts to ionizing radiation.

Genotoxic assessment of carbon nanotubes.

Carbon nanotubes are unique one-dimensional macromolecules with promising application in biology and medicine. Since their toxicity is still under debate, here we describe an investigation of genotoxic properties of purified single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT), multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNT), and amide-functionalized purified SWCNT. We used two different cell systems: cultured human lymphocytes where we employed cytokinesis-block micronucleus test and human fibroblasts where we investigate the induction of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) employing H2AX phosphorylation assay.

Dysfunctional telomeres in primary cells from Fanconi anemia FANCD2 patients.

BACKGROUND: Fanconi anemia (FA) is characterized by sensitivity to DNA cross-linking agents, mild cellular, and marked clinical radio sensitivity. In this study we investigated telomeric abnormalities of non-immortalized primary cells (lymphocytes and fibroblasts) derived from FA patients of the FA-D2 complementation group, which provides a more accurate physiological assessment than is possible with transformed cells or animal models. RESULTS: We analyzed telomere length, telomere dysfunction-induced foci (TIFs), sister chromatid exchanges (SCE), telomere sister chromatid exchanges (T-SCE), apoptosis and expression of shelterin components TRF1 and TRF2. FANCD2 lymphocytes exhibited multiple types of telomeric abnormalities, including premature telomere shortening, increase in telomeric recombination and aberrant telomeric structures ranging from fragile to long-string extended telomeres. The baseline incidence of SCE in FANCD2 lymphocytes was reduced when compared to control, but in response to diepoxybutane (DEB) the 2-fold higher rate of SCE was observed. In contrast, control lymphocytes showed decreased SCE incidence in response to DEB treatment. FANCD2 fibroblasts revealed a high percentage of TIFs, decreased expression of TRF1 and invariable expression of TRF2. The percentage of TIFs inversely correlated with telomere length, emphasizing that telomere shortening is the major reason for the loss of telomere capping function. Upon irradiation, a significant decrease of TIFs was observed at all recovery times. Surprisingly, a considerable percentage of TIF positive cells disappeared at the same time when incidence of γ-H2AX foci was maximal. Both FANCD2 leucocytes and fibroblasts appeared to die spontaneously at higher rate than control. This trend was more evident upon irradiation; the percentage of leucocytes underwent apoptosis was 2.59- fold higher than that in control, while fibroblasts exhibited a 2- h delay before entering apoptosis. CONCLUSION: The results of our study showed that primary cells originating from FA-D2 patients display shorten telomeres, elevated incidence of T-SCEs and high frequency of TIFs. Disappearance of TIFs in early response to irradiation represent distinctive feature of FANCD2 cells that should be examined further.

Gender-related differences in the oxidant state of cells in Fanconi anemia heterozygotes.

Abstract Fanconi anemia (FA) is a rare cancer-prone genetic disorder characterized by progressive bone marrow failure, chromosomal instability and redox abnormalities. There is much biochemical and genetic data, which strongly suggest that FA cells experience increased oxidative stress. The present study was designed to elucidate if differences in oxidant state exist between control, idiopathic bone marrow failure (idBMF) and FA cells, and to analyze oxidant state of cells in FA heterozygous carriers as well. The results of the present study confirm an in vivo prooxidant state of FA cells and clearly indicate that FA patients can be distinguished from idBMF patients based on the oxidant state of cells. Female carriers of FA mutation also exhibited hallmarks of an in vivo prooxidant state behaving in a similar manner as FA patients. On the other hand, the oxidant state of cells in FA male carriers and idBMF families failed to show any significant difference vs. controls. We demonstrate that the altered oxidant state influences susceptibility of cells to apoptosis in both FA patients and female carriers. The results highlight the need for further research of the possible role of mitochondrial inheritance in the pathogenesis of FA.

Fanconi anemia is characterized by delayed repair kinetics of DNA double-strand breaks.

Among patients with bone marrow failure (BMF) syndrome, some are happened to have underlying Fanconi anemia (FA), a genetically heterogeneous disease, which is characterized by progressive pancytopenia and cancer susceptibility. Due to heterogeneous nature of the disease, a single genetic test, as in vitro response to DNA cross-linking agents, usually is not enough to make correct diagnosis. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether measuring repair kinetics of radiation-induced DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) can distinguish Fanconi anemia from other BMF patients. An early step in repair of DSBs is phosphorylation of the histone H2AX, generating gamma-H2AX histone, which extends over mega base-pair regions of DNA from the break site and is visualised as foci (gamma-H2AX foci) with specific antibodies. The primary fibroblasts, established from FA patients, were exposed to gamma-rays, a dose of 2 Gy ((60)Co), incubated for up to 24 hours under repair-permissive conditions, and assayed for the level of gamma-H2AX foci and apoptosis at different recovery times after the treatment. Cell lines originating from FA patients displayed a significant delay in the repair of radiation-induced DNA DSBs relative to non-FA bone marrow failure (non-FA BMF) and control cell lines. The delay is especially evident at recovery time of 24 hours, and is seen as about 8-fold increase of residual gamma-H2AX foci compared to self-state before irradiation. The delay in repair kinetics of FA cells represents the unique feature of FA cellular phenotype, which should be exploited to distinguish FA cellular phenotype.