Locus of Control and Negative Cognitive Styles in Adolescence as Risk Factors for Depression Onset in Young Adulthood: Findings From a Prospective Birth Cohort Study.

Whilst previous observational studies have linked negative thought processes such as an external locus of control and holding negative cognitive styles with depression, the directionality of these associations and the potential role that these factors play in the transition to adulthood and parenthood has not yet been investigated. This study examined the association between locus of control and negative cognitive styles in adolescence and probable depression in young adulthood and whether parenthood moderated these associations. Using a UK prospective population-based birth cohort study: the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC), we examined the association between external locus of control and negative cognitive styles in adolescence with odds of depression in 4,301 young adults using logistic regression models unadjusted and adjusted for potential confounding factors. Interaction terms were employed to examine whether parenthood (i.e., having become a parent or not) moderated these associations. Over 20% of young adults in our sample were at or above the clinical threshold indicating probable depression. For each standard deviation (SD) increase in external locus of control in adolescence, there was a 19% (95% CI: 8-32%) higher odds of having probable depression in young adulthood, after adjusting for various confounding factors including baseline mood and different demographic and life events variables. Similarly, for each SD increase in negative cognitive styles in adolescence, there was a 29% (95% CI: 16-44%) higher odds of having probable depression in the adjusted model. We found little evidence that parenthood status moderated the relationship between external locus of control or negative cognitive styles in adolescence and probable depression following adjustment for confounding factors. Effect estimates were comparable when performed in the complete case dataset. These findings suggest that having an external locus of control and holding negative cognitive styles in mid- to late adolescence is associated with an increased likelihood of probable depression in young adulthood.

GLU: a software package for analysing continuously measured glucose levels in epidemiology.

Continuous glucose monitors (CGM) record interstitial glucose levels 'continuously', producing a sequence of measurements for each participant (e.g. the average glucose level every 5 min over several days, both day and night). To analyse these data, researchers tend to derive summary variables such as the area under the curve (AUC), to then use in subsequent analyses. To date, a lack of consistency and transparency of precise definitions used for these summary variables has hindered interpretation, replication and comparison of results across studies. We present GLU, an open-source software package for deriving a consistent set of summary variables from CGM data. GLU performs quality control of each CGM sample (e.g. addressing missing data), derives a diverse set of summary variables (e.g. AUC and proportion of time spent in hypo-, normo- and hyper- glycaemic levels) covering six broad domains, and outputs these (with quality control information) to the user. GLU is implemented in R and is available on GitHub at https://github.com/MRCIEU/GLU. Git tag v0.2 corresponds to the version presented here.

The Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC): an update on the enrolled sample of index children in 2019.

The Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) is a prospective population-based study. Initial recruitment of pregnant women took place in 1990-1992 and the health and development of the index children from these pregnancies and their family members have been followed ever since. The eligible sampling frame was constructed retrospectively using linked recruitment and health service records. Additional offspring that were eligible to enrol in the study have been welcomed through major recruitment drives at the ages of 7 and 18 years; and through opportunistic contacts since the age of 7. This data note provides a status update on the recruitment of the index children since the age of 7 years with a focus on enrolment since the age of 18, which has not been previously described. A total of 913 additional G1 (the cohort of index children) participants have been enrolled in the study since the age of 7 years with 195 of these joining since the age of 18. This additional enrolment provides a baseline sample of 14,901 G1 participants who were alive at 1 year of age.

The second generation of The Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC-G2): a cohort profile.

Background: The Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children-Generation 2 (ALSPAC-G2) was set up to provide a unique multi-generational cohort. It builds on the existing ALSPAC resource, which recruited 14,541 pregnancies to women resident in the South West of England who were expected to deliver between 01/04/1991 and 31/12/1992. Those women and their partners (Generation 0; ALSPAC-G0) and their offspring (ALSPAC-G1) have been followed for the last 26 years. This profile describes recruitment and data collection on the next generation (ALSPAC-G2)-the grandchildren of ALSPAC-G0 and children of ALSPAC-G1. Recruitment: Recruitment began on the 6 th of June 2012 and we present details of recruitment and participants up to 30 th June 2018 (~6 years). We knew at the start of recruitment that some ALSPAC-G1 participants had already become parents and ALSPAC-G2 is an open cohort; we recruit at any age. We hope to continue recruiting until all ALSPAC-G1 participants have completed their families. Up to 30 th June 2018 we recruited 810 ALSPAC-G2 participants from 548 families. Of these 810, 389 (48%) were recruited during their mother's pregnancy, 287 (35%) before age 3 years, 104 (13%) between 3-6 years and 30 (4%) after 6 years. Over 70% of those invited to early pregnancy, late pregnancy, second week of life, 6-, 12- and 24-month assessments (whether for their recruitment, or a follow-up, visit) have attended, with attendance being over 60% for subsequent visits up to 7 years (to few are eligible for the 9- and 11-year assessments to analyse). Data collection: We collect a wide-range of social, lifestyle, clinical, anthropometric and biological data on all family members repeatedly. Biological samples include blood (including cord-blood), urine, meconium and faeces, and placental tissue. In subgroups detailed data collection, such as continuous glucose monitoring and videos of parent-child interactions, are being collected.

Prevalence of Prenatal Depression Symptoms Among 2 Generations of Pregnant Mothers: The Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children.

Importance: Depression during pregnancy (prenatal depression) is common and has important consequences for mother and child. Evidence suggests an increasing prevalence of depression, especially in young women. It is unknown whether this is reflected in an increasing prevalence of prenatal depression. Objective: To compare the prevalence of depression during pregnancy in today's young mothers with their mothers' generation. Design, Setting, and Participants: In a longitudinal cohort study, we compared prenatal depressive symptoms in 2 generations of women who participated in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Participants were the original mothers (recruited when they were pregnant) and their female offspring, or female partners of male offspring, who became pregnant. Both groups were limited to the same age range (19-24 years). The first generation of pregnancies occurred in 1990 to 1992 (n = 2390) and the second in 2012 to 2016 (n = 180). In both generations, women were born in the same geographical area (southwest England). Main Outcomes and Measures: Depressed mood measured prenatally using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale in self-reported surveys in both generations. A score of 13 or greater on a scale of 0 to 30 indicated depressed mood. Results: Of 2390 pregnant women in the first generation who were included in analysis (mean [SD] age, 22.1 [2.5] years), 408 (17%) had high depressive symptom scores (≥13). Of 180 pregnant women in the second generation who were included in the analysis (mean [SD] age, 22.8 [1.3] years), 45 (25%) had high depressive symptom scores. Having high depressive symptom scores was more common in the second generation of young pregnant women than in their mothers' generation (relative risk, 1.51; 95% CI, 1.15-1.97), with imputation for missing confounding variable data and adjustment for age, parity, education, smoking, and body mass index not substantially changing this difference. Results were essentially the same when analyses were restricted to the 66 mother-offspring pairs. Maternal prenatal depression was associated with daughters' prenatal depression (relative risk, 3.33; 95% CI, 1.65-6.67). Conclusions and Relevance: In this unique study of 2 generations of women who answered identical questionnaires in pregnancy, evidence was found that depressed mood may be higher in young pregnant women today than in their mothers' generation. Because of the multiple and diverse consequences of prenatal depression, an increase in prevalence has important implications for families, health care professionals, and society.