Rotation of the c-Ring Promotes the Curvature Sorting of Monomeric ATP Synthases.

ATP synthases are proteins that catalyse the formation of ATP through the rotatory movement of their membrane-spanning subunit. In mitochondria, ATP synthases are found to arrange as dimers at the high-curved edges of cristae. Here, a direct link is explored between the rotatory movement of ATP synthases and their preference for curved membranes. An active curvature sorting of ATP synthases in lipid nanotubes pulled from giant vesicles is found. Coarse-grained simulations confirm the curvature-seeking behaviour of rotating ATP synthases, promoting reversible and frequent protein-protein contacts. The formation of transient protein dimers relies on the membrane-mediated attractive interaction of the order of 1.5 kB T produced by a hydrophobic mismatch upon protein rotation. Transient dimers are sustained by a conic-like arrangement characterized by a wedge angle of θ ≈ 50°, producing a dynamic coupling between protein shape and membrane curvature. The results suggest a new role of the rotational movement of ATP synthases for their dynamic self-assembly in biological membranes.

Atomic crystal structure and sugar specificity of a ß-trefoil lectin domain from the ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete Laccaria bicolor.

Lectins from fruiting bodies are a diverse group of sugar-binding proteins from mushrooms that face the biologically relevant challenge of discriminating self- from non-self carbohydrate structures, therefore providing a basis for an innate defence system. Such a system entails both detection and destruction of invaders and/or feeders, and in contrast to more complex organisms with immense immune systems, these two functions normally rely on multitasking lectins, namely, lectins with different functional modules. Here, we present a novel fungal lectin, LBL, from the basidiomycete Laccaria bicolor. Using a diverse set of biophysical techniques, we unveil the fine details of the sugar-binding specificity of the N-terminal ß-trefoil of LBL (LBL152), whose structure has been determined at the highest resolution so far reported for such a fold. LBL152 binds complex poly-N-Acetyllactosamine polysaccharides and also robust LBL152 binding to Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster cellular extracts was detected in microarray assays, with a seeming preference for the fruit fly adult and pupa stages over the larva stage. Prediction of the structure of the C-terminal part of LBL with AlphaFold reveals a tandem repeat of two structurally almost identical domains of around 110 amino acids each, despite sharing low sequence conservation.

Overexpression of the White Opaque Switching Master Regulator Wor1 Alters Lipid Metabolism and Mitochondrial Function in Candida albicans.

Candida albicans is a commensal yeast that inhabits the gastrointestinal tract of humans; increased colonization of this yeast in this niche has implicated the master regulator of the white-opaque transition, Wor1, by mechanisms not completely understood. We have addressed the role that this transcription factor has on commensalism by the characterization of strains overexpressing this gene. We show that WOR1 overexpression causes an alteration of the total lipid content of the fungal cell and significantly alters the composition of structural and reserve molecular species lipids as determined by lipidomic analysis. These cells are hypersensitive to membrane-disturbing agents such as SDS, have increased tolerance to azoles, an augmented number of peroxisomes, and increased phospholipase activity. WOR1 overexpression also decreases mitochondrial activity and results in altered susceptibility to certain oxidants. All together, these changes reflect drastic alterations in the cellular physiology that facilitate adaptation to the gastrointestinal tract environment.

Calmodulin-dependent KCNE4 dimerization controls membrane targeting.

The voltage-dependent potassium channel Kv1.3 participates in the immune response. Kv1.3 is essential in different cellular functions, such as proliferation, activation and apoptosis. Because aberrant expression of Kv1.3 is linked to autoimmune diseases, fine-tuning its function is crucial for leukocyte physiology. Regulatory KCNE subunits are expressed in the immune system, and KCNE4 specifically tightly regulates Kv1.3. KCNE4 modulates Kv1.3 currents slowing activation, accelerating inactivation and retaining the channel at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), thereby altering its membrane localization. In addition, KCNE4 genomic variants are associated with immune pathologies. Therefore, an in-depth knowledge of KCNE4 function is extremely relevant for understanding immune system physiology. We demonstrate that KCNE4 dimerizes, which is unique among KCNE regulatory peptide family members. Furthermore, the juxtamembrane tetraleucine carboxyl-terminal domain of KCNE4 is a structural platform in which Kv1.3, Ca2+/calmodulin (CaM) and dimerizing KCNE4 compete for multiple interaction partners. CaM-dependent KCNE4 dimerization controls KCNE4 membrane targeting and modulates its interaction with Kv1.3. KCNE4, which is highly retained at the ER, contains an important ER retention motif near the tetraleucine motif. Upon escaping the ER in a CaM-dependent pattern, KCNE4 follows a COP-II-dependent forward trafficking mechanism. Therefore, CaM, an essential signaling molecule that controls the dimerization and membrane targeting of KCNE4, modulates the KCNE4-dependent regulation of Kv1.3, which in turn fine-tunes leukocyte physiology.

How rotating ATP synthases can modulate membrane structure.

F1Fo-ATP synthase (ATP synthase) is a central membrane protein that synthetizes most of the ATP in the cell through a rotational movement driven by a proton gradient across the hosting membrane. In mitochondria, ATP synthases can form dimers through specific interactions between some subunits of the protein. The dimeric form of ATP synthase provides the protein with a spontaneous curvature that sustain their arrangement at the rim of the high-curvature edges of mitochondrial membrane (cristae). Also, a direct interaction with cardiolipin, a lipid present in the inner mitochondrial membrane, induces the dimerization of ATP synthase molecules along cristae. The deletion of those biochemical interactions abolishes the protein dimerization producing an altered mitochondrial function and morphology. Mechanically, membrane bending is one of the key deformation modes by which mitochondrial membranes can be shaped. In particular, bending rigidity and spontaneous curvature are important physical factors for membrane remodelling. Here, we discuss a complementary mechanism whereby the rotatory movement of the ATP synthase might modify the mechanical properties of lipid bilayers and contribute to the formation and regulation of the membrane invaginations.

Enhanced Cytotoxic Activity of Mitochondrial Mechanical Effectors in Human Lung Carcinoma H520 Cells: Pharmaceutical Implications for Cancer Therapy.

Cancer cell mitochondria represent an attractive target for oncological treatment as they have unique hallmarks that differ from their healthy counterparts, as the presence of a stronger membrane potential that can be exploited to specifically accumulate cytotoxic cationic molecules. Here, we explore the selective cytotoxic effect of 10-N-nonyl acridine orange (NAO) on human lung carcinoma H520 cells and compare them with healthy human lung primary fibroblasts. NAO is a lipophilic and positively charged molecule that promotes mitochondrial membrane adhesion that eventually leads to apoptosis when incubated at high micromolar concentration. We found an enhanced cytotoxicity of NAO in H520 cancer cells. By means Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) we also confirmed the formation of H-dimeric aggregates originating from opposing adjacent membranes that interfere with the mitochondrial membrane structure. Based on our results, we suggest the mitochondrial membrane as a potential target in cancer therapy to mechanically control the cell proliferation of cancer cells.

Dynamic cellular maps of molecular species: Application to drug-target interactions.

The design of living cell studies aimed at deciphering the mechanism of action of drugs targeting proteins with multiple functions, expressed in a wide range of concentrations and cellular locations, is a real challenge. We recently showed that the antitumor drug plitidepsin (APL) localizes sufficiently close to the elongation factor eEF1A2 so as to suggest the formation of drug-protein complexes in living cells. Here we present an extension of our previous micro-spectroscopy study, that combines Generalized Polarization (GP) images, with the phasor approach and fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM), using a 7-aminocoumarin drug analog (APL*) as fluorescence tracer. Using the proposed methodology, we were able to follow in real time the formation and relative distribution of two sets of APL-target complexes in live cells, revealing two distinct patterns of behavior for HeLa-wt and APL resistant HeLa-APL-R cells. The information obtained may complement and facilitate the design of new experiments and the global interpretation of the results obtained with other biochemical and cell biology methods, as well as possibly opening new avenues of study to decipher the mechanism of action of new drugs.

Study of rabbit erythrocytes membrane solubilization by sucrose monomyristate using laurdan and phasor analysis.

The study of surfactant and bio membranes interaction is particularly complex due to the diversity in lipid composition and the presence of proteins in natural membranes. Even more difficult is the study of this interaction in vivo since cellular damage may complicate the interpretation of the results, therefore for most of the studies in this field either artificial or model systems are used. One of the model system most used to study biomembranes are erythrocytes due to their relatively simple structure (they lack nuclei and organelles having only the plasma membrane), their convenient experimental manipulation and availability. In this context, we used rabbit erythrocytes as a model membrane and Laurdan (6-lauroyl-2-dimethylaminonaphthalene) as the fluorescent probe to study changes promoted in the membrane by the interaction with the sucrose monoester of myristic acid, ß-d-fructofuranosyl-6-O-myristoyl-α-d-glucopyranoside (MMS). Surfactant and erythrocytes interaction was studied by measuring hemoglobin release and the changes in water content in the membrane sensed by Laurdan. Using two-photon excitation, three types of measurements were performed: Generalized Polarization (analyzed as average GP values), Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging, FLIM (analyzed using phasor plots) and Spectral imaging (analyzed using spectral phasor). Our data indicate that at sublytical concentration of surfactant (20µM MMS), there is a decrease of about 35% in erythrocytes size, without changes in Laurdan lifetime or emission spectra. We also demonstrate that as hemolysis progress, Laurdan lifetime increased due to the decrease in hemoglobin (strong quencher of Laurdan emission) content inside the erythrocytes. Under these conditions, Laurdan spectral phasor analyses can extract the information on the water content in the membrane in the presence of hemoglobin. Our results indicate an increase in membrane fluidity in presence of MMS.

Rhodamine-based sensor for real-time imaging of mitochondrial ATP in living fibroblasts.

Mitochondria are essential for the production and maintenance of ATP in the eukaryotic cell. To image and monitor intracellular ATP level without cell breakage, biological and chemical sensors were developed in the last years. Here, we have internalized a rhodamine-based sensor RSL+ into living cells and monitored the mitochondrial ATP levels in cultured mouse embryonic fibroblasts. To evaluate the robustness of the sensor we imaged the changes of the mitochondrial ATP levels under non-physiological conditions upon incubation with FCCP, oligomycin, azide, deoxyglucose or phosphoenolpyruvate; all compounds that interfere with ATP homeostasis of the cell. The ATP sensor allowed us to determine the mitochondrial ATP levels in human skin fibroblasts where we observe a similar amount of ATP compared to mouse embryonic fibroblasts. We propose the RSL+ to be a valuable tool for the assessment of mitochondrial dysfunction in human cells derived from mitochondrial OXPHOS patients and for basic studies on bioenergetics metabolism.

Translation Elongation Factor eEF1A2 is a Novel Anticancer Target for the Marine Natural Product Plitidepsin.

eEF1A2 is one of the isoforms of the alpha subunit of the eukaryotic Elongation Factor 1. It is overexpressed in human tumors and is endowed with oncogenic properties, favoring tumor cell proliferation while inhibiting apoptosis. We demonstrate that plitidepsin, an antitumor agent of marine origin that has successfully completed a phase-III clinical trial for multiple myeloma, exerts its antitumor activity by targeting eEF1A2. The drug interacts with eEF1A2 with a KD of 80 nM and a target residence time of circa 9 min. This protein was also identified as capable of binding [14C]-plitidepsin in a cell lysate from K-562 tumor cells. A molecular modelling approach was used to identify a favorable binding site for plitidepsin at the interface between domains 1 and 2 of eEF1A2 in the GTP conformation. Three tumor cell lines selected for at least 100-fold more resistance to plitidepsin than their respective parental cells showed reduced levels of eEF1A2 protein. Ectopic expression of eEF1A2 in resistant cells restored the sensitivity to plitidepsin. FLIM-phasor FRET experiments demonstrated that plitidepsin localizes in tumor cells sufficiently close to eEF1A2 as to suggest the formation of drug-protein complexes in living cells. Altogether, our results strongly suggest that eEF1A2 is the primary target of plitidepsin.

Two-Photon Fluorescence Anisotropy Imaging to Elucidate the Dynamics and the Stability of Immobilized Proteins.

Time/spatial-resolved fluorescence determines anisotropy values of supported-fluorescent proteins through different immobilization chemistries, evidencing some of the molecular mechanisms that drive the stabilization of proteins at the interfaces with solid surfaces. Fluorescence anisotropy imaging provides a normalized protein mobility parameter that serves as a guide to study the effect of different immobilization parameters (length and flexibility of the spacer arm and multivalency of the protein-support interaction) on the final stability of the supported proteins. Proteins in a more constrained environment correspond to the most thermostable ones, as was shown by thermal inactivation studies. This work contributes to explain the experimental evidence found with conventional methods based on observable measurements; thus this advanced characterization technique provides reliable molecular information about the immobilized proteins with sub-micrometer spatial resolution. Such information has been very useful for fabricating highly stable heterogeneous biocatalysts with high interest in industrial developments.

Elisidepsin Interacts Directly with Glycosylceramides in the Plasma Membrane of Tumor Cells to Induce Necrotic Cell Death.

Plasma membrane integrity is essential for cell life. Any major break on it immediately induces the death of the affected cell. Different molecules were described as disrupting this cell structure and thus showing antitumor activity. We have previously defined that elisidepsin (Irvalec®, PM02734) inserts and self-organizes in the plasma membrane of tumor cells, inducing a rapid loss of membrane integrity, cell permeabilization and necrotic death. Here we show that, in sensitive HCT-116 colorectal cells, all these effects are consequence of the interaction of elisidepsin with glycosylceramides in the cell membrane. Of note, an elisidepsin-resistant subline (HCT-116-Irv) presented reduced levels of glycosylceramides and no accumulation of elisidepsin in the plasma membrane. Consequently, drug treatment did not induce the characteristic necrotic cell death. Furthermore, GM95, a mutant derivative from B16 mouse melanoma cells lacking ceramide glucosyltransferase (UGCG) activity and thus the synthesis of glycosylceramides, was also resistant to elisidepsin. Over-expression of UGCG gene in these deficient cells restored glycosylceramides synthesis, rendering them sensitive to elisidepsin, at a similar level than parental B16 cells. These results indicate that glycosylceramides act as membrane targets of elisidepsin, facilitating its insertion in the plasma membrane and the subsequent membrane permeabilization that leads to drug-induced cell death. They also indicate that cell membrane lipids are a plausible target for antineoplastic therapy.

Directed, strong, and reversible immobilization of proteins tagged with a ß-trefoil lectin domain: a simple method to immobilize biomolecules on plain agarose matrixes.

A highly stable lipase from Geobacillus thermocatenolatus (BTL2) and the enhanced green fluorescent protein from Aquorea victoria (EGFP) were recombinantly produced N-terminally tagged to the lectin domain of the hemolytic pore-forming toxin LSLa from the mushroom Laetiporus sulphureus . Such a domain (LSL(150)), recently described as a novel fusion tag, is based on a ß-trefoil scaffold with two operative binding sites for galactose or galactose-containing derivatives. The fusion proteins herein analyzed have enabled us to characterize the binding mode of LSL(150) to polymeric and solid substrates such as agarose beads. The lectin-fusion proteins are able to be quantitatively bound to both cross-linked and non-cross-linked agarose matrixes in a very rapid manner, resulting in a surprisingly dynamic protein distribution inside the porous beads that evolves from heterogeneous to homogeneous along the postimmobilization time. Such dynamic distribution can be related to the reversible nature of the LSL(150)-agarose interaction. Furthermore, this latter interaction is temperature dependent since it is 4-fold stronger when the immobilization takes place at 25 °C than when it does at 4 °C. The strongest lectin-agarose interaction is also quite stable under a survey of different conditions such as high temperatures (up to 60 °C) or high organic solvent concentrations (up to 60% of acetonitrile). Notably, the use of cross-linked agarose would endow the system with more robustness due to its better mechanical properties compared to the noncross-linked one. The stability of the LSL(150)-agarose interaction would prevent protein leaching during the operation process unless high pH media are used. In summary, we believe that the LSL(150) lectin domain exhibits interesting structural features as an immobilization domain that makes it suitable to reversibly immobilize industrially relevant enzymes in very simple carriers as agarose.

Irvalec inserts into the plasma membrane causing rapid loss of integrity and necrotic cell death in tumor cells.

Irvalec is a marine-derived antitumor agent currently undergoing phase II clinical trials. In vitro, Irvalec induces a rapid loss of membrane integrity in tumor cells, accompanied of a significant Ca(2+) influx, perturbations of membrane conductivity, severe swelling and the formation of giant membranous vesicles. All these effects are not observed in Irvalec-resistant cells, or are significantly delayed by pretreating the cells with Zn(2+). Using fluorescent derivatives of Irvalec it was demonstrated that the compound rapidly interacts with the plasma membrane of tumor cells promoting lipid bilayer restructuration. Also, FRET experiments demonstrated that Irvalec molecules localize in the cell membrane close enough to each other as to suggest that the compound could self-organize, forming supramolecular structures that likely trigger cell death by necrosis through the disruption of membrane integrity.

Endocannabinoids and cannabinoid analogues block cardiac hKv1.5 channels in a cannabinoid receptor-independent manner.

AIMS: Endocannabinoids are synthesized from lipid precursors at the plasma membranes of virtually all cell types, including cardiac myocytes. Endocannabinoids can modulate neuronal and vascular ion channels through receptor-independent actions; however, their effects on cardiac K(+) channels are unknown. This study was undertaken to determine the receptor-independent effects of endocannabinoids such as anandamide (N-arachidonoylethanolamine, AEA), 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), and endocannabinoid-related compounds such as N-palmitoylethanolamine (PEA), N-oleoylethanolamine (OEA), the endogenous lipid lysophosphatidylinositol (LPI), and the fatty acids from which some of these compounds are endogenously synthesized, on human cardiac Kv1.5 channels, which generate the ultrarapid delayed rectifier current (I(Kur)). METHODS AND RESULTS: hKv1.5 currents (I(hKv1.5)) were recorded in mouse fibroblasts (Ltk(-) cells) by using the whole-cell patch-clamp technique. Most of these compounds inhibited I(hKv1.5) in a concentration-dependent manner, the potency being determined by the number of C atoms in the fatty acyl chain. Indeed, AEA and 2-AG, which are arachidonic acid (20:4) derivatives, exhibited the highest potency (IC(50) approximately 0.9-2.5 microM), whereas PEA, a palmitic acid (PA-16:0) derivative, exhibited the lowest potency. The inhibition was independent of cannabinoid receptor engagement and of changes in the order and microviscosity of the membrane. Furthermore, blockade induced by AEA and 2-AG was abolished upon mutation of the R487 residue, which determines the external tetraethylammonium sensitivity and is located in the external entryway of the pore. AEA significantly prolonged the duration of action potentials (APs) recorded in mouse left atria. CONCLUSION: These results indicate that endocannabinoids block human cardiac Kv1.5 channels by interacting with an extracellular binding site, a mechanism by which these compounds regulate atrial AP shape.

Endocannabinoids and cannabinoid analogues block human cardiac Kv4.3 channels in a receptor-independent manner.

Endocannabinoids are amides and esters of long chain fatty acids that can modulate ion channels through both receptor-dependent and receptor-independent effects. Nowadays, their effects on cardiac K(+) channels are unknown even when they can be synthesized within the heart. We have analyzed the direct effects of endocannabinoids, such as anandamide (AEA), 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), the endogenous lipid lysophosphatidylinositol, and cannabinoid analogues such as palmitoylethanolamide (PEA), and oleoylethanolamide, as well as the fatty acids from which they are endogenously synthesized, on human cardiac Kv4.3 channels, which generate the transient outward K(+) current (I(to1)). Currents were recorded in Chinese hamster ovary cells, which do not express cannabinoid receptors, by using the whole-cell patch-clamp. All these compounds inhibited I(Kv4.3) in a concentration-dependent manner, AEA and 2-AG being the most potent (IC(50) approximately 0.3-0.4 microM), while PEA was the least potent. The potency of block increased as the complexity and the number of C atoms in the fatty acyl chain increased. The effects were not mediated by modifications in the lipid order and microviscosity of the membrane and were independent of the presence of MiRP2 or DPP6 subunits in the channel complex. Indeed, effects produced by AEA were reproduced in human atrial I(to1) recorded in isolated myocytes. Moreover, AEA effects were exclusively apparent when it was applied to the external surface of the cell membrane. These results indicate that at low micromolar concentrations the endocannabinoids AEA and 2-AG directly block human cardiac Kv4.3 channels, which represent a novel molecular target for these compounds.

Quantitative investigation of biomolecular interactions in crowded media by fluorescence spectroscopy, a good choice.

Fluorescence spectroscopy methods have been proved to be powerful tools for the quantitative investigation of homologous and heterologous interactions, rotational and translational diffusion, and structural dynamics of biological molecules in crowded media. In addition to their high sensitivity, these methods present the advantage that the selective fluorescent labeling of the biomolecules under study allows distinguishing them from the background species. Moreover, the recent development of biological applications of single molecule fluorescence micro-spectroscopy methods has opened the possibility of performing quantitative determinations inside cells. In the last decades, theoretical and experimental studies have demonstrated the possible influence of the high concentration of macromolecules within living systems, on the thermodynamics and kinetics of biological reactions. Therefore, there is a growing interest in quantitatively evaluating the interactions involving biomolecules in the natural environment in which they occur. Since this is not always feasible, experiments conducted in model crowded conditions, resembling physiological media, may contribute to reduce the gap between traditional in vitro and in vivo experiments. In this review we will discuss the application of some fluorescence spectroscopy approaches, for the identification and quantification of biological macromolecules and their functional interactions in model crowded conditions.

Structural basis of the interaction between integrin alpha6beta4 and plectin at the hemidesmosomes.

The interaction between the integrin alpha6beta4 and plectin is essential for the assembly and stability of hemidesmosomes, which are junctional adhesion complexes that anchor epithelial cells to the basement membrane. We describe the crystal structure at 2.75 A resolution of the primary alpha6beta4-plectin complex, formed by the first pair of fibronectin type III domains and the N-terminal region of the connecting segment of beta4 and the actin-binding domain of plectin. Two missense mutations in beta4 (R1225H and R1281W) linked to nonlethal forms of epidermolysis bullosa prevent essential intermolecular contacts. We also present two structures at 1.75 and 2.05 A resolution of the beta4 moiety in the absence of plectin, which reveal a major rearrangement of the connecting segment of beta4 on binding to plectin. This conformational switch is correlated with the way alpha6beta4 promotes stable adhesion or cell migration and suggests an allosteric control of the integrin.

Fluorescence studies of the replication initiator protein RepA in complex with operator and iteron sequences and free in solution.

RepA, the replication initiator protein from the Pseudomonas plasmid pPS10, regulates plasmid replication and copy number. It is capable of autorepression, in which case it binds as a dimer to the inverted repeat operator sequence preceding its own gene. RepA initiates plasmid replication by binding as a monomer to a series of four adjacent iterons, which contain the same half-repeat as found in the operator sequence. RepA contains two domains, one of which binds specifically to the half-repeat. The other is the dimerization domain, which is involved in protein-protein interactions in the dimeric RepA-operon complex, but which actually binds DNA in the monomeric RepA-iteron complex. Here, detailed fluorescence studies on RepA and an N-(iodoacetyl)aminoethyl-8-naphthylamine-1-sulfonic acid-labeled single-cysteine mutant of RepA (Cys160) are described. Using time-resolved fluorescence depolarization measurements, the global rotational correlation times of RepA free in solution and bound to the operator and to two distinct iteron dsDNA oligonucleotides were determined. These provide indications that, in addition to the monomeric RepA-iteron complex, a stable dimeric RepA-iteron complex can also exist. Further, Förster resonance energy transfer between Trp94, located in the dimerization domain, and N-(iodoacetyl)aminoethyl-8-naphthylamine-1-sulfonic acid-Cys160, located on the DNA-binding domain, is observed and used to estimate the distance between the two fluorophores. This distance may serve as an indicator of the orientation between both domains in the unbound protein and RepA bound to the various cognate DNA sequences. No major change in distance is observed and this is taken as evidence for little to no re-orientation of both domains upon complex formation.

Investigating transcriptional regulation by fluorescence spectroscopy, from traditional methods to state-of-the-art single-molecule approaches.

Gene expression regulation, in particular at the level of transcription, has been demonstrated to play a key role in the development of human diseases, including cancer, and in bacteria it is crucial for proliferation as well as for pathogenicity. Transcriptional regulation is based on complex networks of interactions, including those of the regulatory proteins with the operator DNAs, which are further modulated by ligands. Thus, understanding transcriptional regulation mechanisms requires a thorough analysis of the physical parameters underlying the interactions involved. Among the panoply of methods available, fluorescence spectroscopy-based approaches have been widely used for the assessment of the thermodynamics and structural dynamics of biomolecular interactions. Here we will discuss the application of three fluorescence spectroscopy methods--fluorescence anisotropy and fluorescence correlation and cross-correlation spectroscopy--for the investigation of protein-DNA, protein-protein, and protein-ligand interactions. The weaknesses and the strengths of each method will be highlighted on the basis of our experience in the analysis of the interactions of bacterial repressors implicated in transcriptional regulation in bacilli.