Induced acute hyperglycemia modifies the barrier function of the intestinal epithelium by tissue inflammation and tight junction disruption resulting in hydroelectrolytic secretion in an animal model.

Diabetic-metabolic syndrome (MetS-D) has a high prevalence worldwide, in which an association with the rupture of the intestinal epithelium barrier function (IEBF) has been pointed out, but the functional and morphological properties are still not well understood. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of acute hyperglycemia diabetes on intestinal tight junction proteins, metabolic failure, intestinal ion and water transports, and IEBF parameters. Diabetes was induced in male Rattus norvegicus (200-310 g) with 0.5 mL of streptozotocin (70 mg/kg). Glycemic and clinical parameters were evaluated every 7 days, and intestinal parameters were evaluated on the 14th day. The MetS-D animals showed a clinical pattern of hyperglycemia, with increases in the area of villi and crypts, lactulose:mannitol ratio, myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity, and intestinal tissue concentrations of malondialdehyde (MDA), but showed a reduction in reduced glutathione (GSH) when these parameters were compared to the control. The MetS-D group had increased secretion of Na+, K+, Cl-, and water compared to the control group in ileal tissue. Furthermore, we observed a reduction in mRNA transcript of claudin-2, claudin-15, and NHE3 and increases of SGLT-1 and ZO-1 in the MetS-D group. These results showed that MetS-D triggered intestinal tissue inflammation, oxidative stress, complex alterations in gene regulatory protein transcriptions of intestinal transporters and tight junctions, damaging the IEBF and causing hydroelectrolyte secretion.

Alanyl-glutamine protects the intestinal barrier function in trained rats against the impact of acute exhaustive exercise.

Strenuous exercise triggers deleterious effects on the intestinal epithelium, but their mechanisms are still uncertain. Here, we investigated whether a prolonged training and an additional exhaustive training protocol alter intestinal permeability and the putative effect of alanyl-glutamine (AG) pretreatment in this condition. Rats were allocated into 5 different groups: 1) sedentary; 2 and 3) trained (50 min per day, 5 days per week for 12 weeks) with or without 6 weeks oral (1.5 g/kg) AG supplementation; 4 and 5) trained and subjected to an additional exhaustive test protocol with or without oral AG supplementation. Venous blood samples were collected to determine gasometrical indices at the end of the 12-week protocol or after exhaustive test. Lactate and glucose levels were determined before, during, and after the exhaustive test. Ileum tissue collected after all experimental procedures was used for gene expression analysis of Zonula occludens 1 (ZO-1), occludin, claudin-2, and oligopeptide transporter 1 (PepT-1). Intestinal permeability was assessed by urinary lactulose/mannitol test collected after the 12-week protocol or the exhaustive test. The exhaustive test decreased pH and base excess and increased pCO2. Training sessions delayed exhaustion time and reduced the changes in blood glucose and lactate levels. Trained rats exhibited upregulation of PEPT-1, ZO-1, and occludin mRNA, which were partially protected by AG. Exhaustive exercise induced intestinal paracellular leakage associated with the upregulation of claudin-2, a phenomenon protected by AG treatment. Thus, AG partially prevented intestinal training adaptations but also blocked paracellular leakage during exhaustive exercise involving claudin-2 and occludin gene expression.

Dietary intake from complementary feeding is associated with intestinal barrier function and environmental enteropathy in Brazilian children from the MAL-ED cohort study.

A child's diet contains nutrients and other substances that influence intestinal health. The present study aimed to evaluate the relations between complementary feeding, intestinal barrier function and environmental enteropathy (EE) in infants. Data from 233 children were obtained from the Brazilian site of the Etiology, Risk Factors, and Interactions of Enteric Infections and Malnutrition and the Consequences for Child Health and Development Project cohort study. Habitual dietary intake from complementary feeding was estimated using seven 24-h dietary recalls, from 9 to 15 months of age. Intestinal barrier function was assessed using the lactulose-mannitol test (L-M), and EE was determined as a composite measure using faecal biomarkers concentrations - α-1-antitrypsin, myeloperoxidase (MPO) and neopterin (NEO) at 15 months of age. The nutrient adequacies explored the associations between dietary intake and the intestinal biomarkers. Children showed adequate nutrient intakes (with the exception of fibre), impaired intestinal barrier function and intestinal inflammation. There was a negative correlation between energy adequacy and L-M (ρ = -0·19, P < 0·05) and between folate adequacy and NEO concentrations (ρ = -0·21, P < 0·01). In addition, there was a positive correlation between thiamine adequacy and MPO concentration (ρ = 0·22, P < 0·01) and between Ca adequacy and NEO concentration (ρ = 0·23; P < 0·01). Multiple linear regression models showed that energy intakes were inversely associated with intestinal barrier function (ß = -0·19, P = 0·02), and fibre intake was inversely associated with the EE scores (ß = -0·20, P = 0·04). Findings suggest that dietary intake from complementary feeding is associated with decreased intestinal barrier function and EE in children.

Alanyl-glutamine protects the intestinal barrier function in trained rats against the impact of acute exhaustive exercise

Strenuous exercise triggers deleterious effects on the intestinal epithelium, but their mechanisms are still uncertain. Here, we investigated whether a prolonged training and an additional exhaustive training protocol alter intestinal permeability and the putative effect of alanyl-glutamine (AG) pretreatment in this condition. Rats were allocated into 5 different groups: 1) sedentary; 2 and 3) trained (50 min per day, 5 days per week for 12 weeks) with or without 6 weeks oral (1.5 g/kg) AG supplementation; 4 and 5) trained and subjected to an additional exhaustive test protocol with or without oral AG supplementation. Venous blood samples were collected to determine gasometrical indices at the end of the 12-week protocol or after exhaustive test. Lactate and glucose levels were determined before, during, and after the exhaustive test. Ileum tissue collected after all experimental procedures was used for gene expression analysis of Zonula occludens 1 (ZO-1), occludin, claudin-2, and oligopeptide transporter 1 (PepT-1). Intestinal permeability was assessed by urinary lactulose/mannitol test collected after the 12-week protocol or the exhaustive test. The exhaustive test decreased pH and base excess and increased pCO2. Training sessions delayed exhaustion time and reduced the changes in blood glucose and lactate levels. Trained rats exhibited upregulation of PEPT-1, ZO-1, and occludin mRNA, which were partially protected by AG. Exhaustive exercise induced intestinal paracellular leakage associated with the upregulation of claudin-2, a phenomenon protected by AG treatment. Thus, AG partially prevented intestinal training adaptations but also blocked paracellular leakage during exhaustive exercise involving claudin-2 and occludin gene expression.

Intestinal cell migration damage induced by enteropathogenic Escherichia coli strains.

Epithelial cell migration is an essential response to enteric pathogens such as enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC). This study aimed to investigate the effects of EPEC infection on intestinal epithelial cell migration in vitro, as well as the involvement of type III secretion system (T3SS) and Rho GTPases. Crypt intestinal epithelial cells (IEC-6) were infected with EPEC strains (E2348/69, ΔescF, and the LDI001 strain isolated from a malnourished Brazilian child) and commensal E. coli HS. Wound migration and cell death assays were performed at different time-points. Transcription and expression of Rho GTPases were evaluated using real-time PCR and western blotting. Overall, EPEC E2348/69 reduced migration and increased apoptosis and necrosis levels compared to EPEC LDI001 and E. coli HS strains. Moreover, EPEC LDI001 impaired cell migration at a higher level than E. coli HS and increased necrosis after 24 hours compared to the control group. The different profiles of virulence genes between the two wild-type EPEC strains, characterized by the absence of espL and nleE genes in the LDI001, might explain the phenotypic results, playing significant roles on cell migration impairment and cell death-related events. Moreover, the type III secretion system is determinant for the inhibition of intestinal epithelial cell migration by EPEC 2348/69, as its deletion prevented the effect. Active Rac1 concentrations were increased in E2348/69 and LDI001-infected cells, while the T3SS-deficient strain did not demonstrate this activation. This study contributes with valuable insight to characterize the mechanisms involved in the impairment of intestinal cell migration induced by EPEC.

Critical Role of Zinc in a New Murine Model of Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli Diarrhea.

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) is a major cause of traveler's diarrhea as well as of endemic diarrhea and stunting in children in developing areas. However, a small-mammal model has been badly needed to better understand and assess mechanisms, vaccines, and interventions. We report a murine model of ETEC diarrhea, weight loss, and enteropathy and investigate the role of zinc in the outcomes. ETEC strains producing heat-labile toxins (LT) and heat-stable toxins (ST) that were given to weaned C57BL/6 mice after antibiotic disruption of normal microbiota caused growth impairment, watery diarrhea, heavy stool shedding, and mild to moderate intestinal inflammation, the latter being worse with zinc deficiency. Zinc treatment promoted growth in zinc-deficient infected mice, and subinhibitory levels of zinc reduced expression of ETEC virulence genes cfa1, cexE, sta2, and degP but not of eltA in vitro Zinc supplementation increased shedding and the ileal burden of wild-type (WT) ETEC but decreased shedding and the tissue burden of LT knockout (LTKO) ETEC. LTKO ETEC-infected mice had delayed disease onset and also had less inflammation by fecal myeloperoxidase (MPO) assessment. These findings provide a new murine model of ETEC infection that can help elucidate mechanisms of growth, diarrhea, and inflammatory responses as well as potential vaccines and interventions.

Seasonality and within-subject clustering of rotavirus infections in an eight-site birth cohort study.

Improving understanding of the pathogen-specific seasonality of enteric infections is critical to informing policy on the timing of preventive measures and to forecast trends in the burden of diarrhoeal disease. Data obtained from active surveillance of cohorts can capture the underlying infection status as transmission occurs in the community. The purpose of this study was to characterise rotavirus seasonality in eight different locations while adjusting for age, calendar time and within-subject clustering of episodes by applying an adapted Serfling model approach to data from a multi-site cohort study. In the Bangladesh and Peru sites, within-subject clustering was high, with more than half of infants who experienced one rotavirus infection going on to experience a second and more than 20% experiencing a third. In the five sites that are in countries that had not introduced the rotavirus vaccine, the model predicted a primary peak in prevalence during the dry season and, in three of these, a secondary peak during the rainy season. The patterns predicted by this approach are broadly congruent with several emerging hypotheses about rotavirus transmission and are consistent for both symptomatic and asymptomatic rotavirus episodes. These findings have practical implications for programme design, but caution should be exercised in deriving inferences about the underlying pathways driving these trends, particularly when extending the approach to other pathogens.

Intestinal cell migration damage induced by enteropathogenic Escherichia coli strains

Epithelial cell migration is an essential response to enteric pathogens such as enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC). This study aimed to investigate the effects of EPEC infection on intestinal epithelial cell migration in vitro, as well as the involvement of type III secretion system (T3SS) and Rho GTPases. Crypt intestinal epithelial cells (IEC-6) were infected with EPEC strains (E2348/69, ΔescF, and the LDI001 strain isolated from a malnourished Brazilian child) and commensal E. coli HS. Wound migration and cell death assays were performed at different time-points. Transcription and expression of Rho GTPases were evaluated using real-time PCR and western blotting. Overall, EPEC E2348/69 reduced migration and increased apoptosis and necrosis levels compared to EPEC LDI001 and E. coli HS strains. Moreover, EPEC LDI001 impaired cell migration at a higher level than E. coli HS and increased necrosis after 24 hours compared to the control group. The different profiles of virulence genes between the two wild-type EPEC strains, characterized by the absence of espL and nleE genes in the LDI001, might explain the phenotypic results, playing significant roles on cell migration impairment and cell death-related events. Moreover, the type III secretion system is determinant for the inhibition of intestinal epithelial cell migration by EPEC 2348/69, as its deletion prevented the effect. Active Rac1 concentrations were increased in E2348/69 and LDI001-infected cells, while the T3SS-deficient strain did not demonstrate this activation. This study contributes with valuable insight to characterize the mechanisms involved in the impairment of intestinal cell migration induced by EPEC.

Impact of acute undernutrition on growth, ileal morphology and nutrient transport in a murine model.

Undernutrition represents a major public health challenge for middle- and low-income countries. This study aimed to evaluate whether a multideficient Northeast Brazil regional basic diet (RBD) induces acute morphological and functional changes in the ileum of mice. Swiss mice (∼25 g) were allocated into two groups: i) control mice were fed a standard diet and II) undernourished mice were fed the RBD. After 7 days, mice were killed and the ileum collected for evaluation of electrophysiological parameters (Ussing chambers), transcription (RT-qPCR) and protein expression (western blotting) of intestinal transporters and tight junctions. Body weight gain was significantly decreased in the undernourished group, which also showed decreased crypt depth but no alterations in villus height. Electrophysiology measurements showed a reduced basal short circuit current (Isc) in the undernourished group, with no differences in transepithelial resistance. Specific substrate-evoked Isc related to affinity and efficacy (glutamine and alanyl-glutamine) were not different between groups, except for the maximum Isc (efficacy) induced by glucose. Transcription of Sglt1 and Pept1 was significantly higher in the undernourished group, while SN-2 transcription was decreased. No changes were found in transcription of CAT-1 and CFTR, while claudin-2 and occludin transcriptions were significantly increased in the undernourished group. Despite mRNA changes, SGLT-1, PEPT-1, claudin-2 and occludin protein expression showed no difference between groups. These results demonstrate early effects of the RBD on mice, which include reduced body weight and crypt depth in the absence of significant alterations to villus morphology, intestinal transporters and tight junction expression.

Impact of acute undernutrition on growth, ileal morphology and nutrient transport in a murine model

Undernutrition represents a major public health challenge for middle- and low-income countries. This study aimed to evaluate whether a multideficient Northeast Brazil regional basic diet (RBD) induces acute morphological and functional changes in the ileum of mice. Swiss mice (∼25 g) were allocated into two groups: i) control mice were fed a standard diet and II) undernourished mice were fed the RBD. After 7 days, mice were killed and the ileum collected for evaluation of electrophysiological parameters (Ussing chambers), transcription (RT-qPCR) and protein expression (western blotting) of intestinal transporters and tight junctions. Body weight gain was significantly decreased in the undernourished group, which also showed decreased crypt depth but no alterations in villus height. Electrophysiology measurements showed a reduced basal short circuit current (Isc) in the undernourished group, with no differences in transepithelial resistance. Specific substrate-evoked Isc related to affinity and efficacy (glutamine and alanyl-glutamine) were not different between groups, except for the maximum Isc (efficacy) induced by glucose. Transcription of Sglt1 and Pept1 was significantly higher in the undernourished group, while SN-2 transcription was decreased. No changes were found in transcription of CAT-1 and CFTR, while claudin-2 and occludin transcriptions were significantly increased in the undernourished group. Despite mRNA changes, SGLT-1, PEPT-1, claudin-2 and occludin protein expression showed no difference between groups. These results demonstrate early effects of the RBD on mice, which include reduced body weight and crypt depth in the absence of significant alterations to villus morphology, intestinal transporters and tight junction expression.

Alanyl-glutamine attenuates 5-fluorouracil-induced intestinal mucositis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice

Apolipoprotein E (APOE=gene, apoE=protein) is a known factor regulating the inflammatory response that may have regenerative effects during tissue recovery from injury. We investigated whether apoE deficiency reduces the healing effect of alanyl-glutamine (Ala-Gln) treatment, a recognized gut-trophic nutrient, during tissue recovery after 5-FU-induced intestinal mucositis. APOE-knockout (APOE-/-) and wild-type (APOE+/+) C57BL6J male and female mice (N=86) were given either Ala-Gln (100 mM) or phosphate buffered saline (PBS) by gavage 3 days before and 5 days after a 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) challenge (450 mg/kg, via intraperitoneal injection). Mouse body weight was monitored daily. The 5-FU cytotoxic effect was evaluated by leukometry. Intestinal villus height, villus/crypt ratio, and villin expression were monitored to assess recovery of the intestinal absorptive surface area. Crypt length, mitotic, apoptotic, and necrotic crypt indexes, and quantitative real-time PCR for insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) intestinal mRNA transcripts were used to evaluate intestinal epithelial cell turnover. 5-FU challenge caused significant weight loss and leukopenia (P<0.001) in both mouse strains, which was not improved by Ala-Gln. Villus blunting, crypt hyperplasia, and reduced villus/crypt ratio (P<0.05) were found in all 5-FU-challenged mice but not in PBS controls. Ala-Gln improved villus/crypt ratio, crypt length and mitotic index in all challenged mice, compared with PBS controls. Ala-Gln improved villus height only in APOE-/- mice. Crypt cell apoptosis and necrotic scores were increased in all mice challenged by 5-FU, compared with untreated controls. Those scores were significantly lower in Ala-Gln-treated APOE+/+ mice than in controls. Bcl-2 and IGF-1 mRNA transcripts were reduced only in the APOE-/--challenged mice. Altogether our findings suggest APOE-independent Ala-Gln regenerative effects after 5-FU challenge.

Alanyl-glutamine attenuates 5-fluorouracil-induced intestinal mucositis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice.

Apolipoprotein E (APOE=gene, apoE=protein) is a known factor regulating the inflammatory response that may have regenerative effects during tissue recovery from injury. We investigated whether apoE deficiency reduces the healing effect of alanyl-glutamine (Ala-Gln) treatment, a recognized gut-trophic nutrient, during tissue recovery after 5-FU-induced intestinal mucositis. APOE-knockout (APOE-/-) and wild-type (APOE+/+) C57BL6J male and female mice (N=86) were given either Ala-Gln (100 mM) or phosphate buffered saline (PBS) by gavage 3 days before and 5 days after a 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) challenge (450 mg/kg, via intraperitoneal injection). Mouse body weight was monitored daily. The 5-FU cytotoxic effect was evaluated by leukometry. Intestinal villus height, villus/crypt ratio, and villin expression were monitored to assess recovery of the intestinal absorptive surface area. Crypt length, mitotic, apoptotic, and necrotic crypt indexes, and quantitative real-time PCR for insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) intestinal mRNA transcripts were used to evaluate intestinal epithelial cell turnover. 5-FU challenge caused significant weight loss and leukopenia (P<0.001) in both mouse strains, which was not improved by Ala-Gln. Villus blunting, crypt hyperplasia, and reduced villus/crypt ratio (P<0.05) were found in all 5-FU-challenged mice but not in PBS controls. Ala-Gln improved villus/crypt ratio, crypt length and mitotic index in all challenged mice, compared with PBS controls. Ala-Gln improved villus height only in APOE-/- mice. Crypt cell apoptosis and necrotic scores were increased in all mice challenged by 5-FU, compared with untreated controls. Those scores were significantly lower in Ala-Gln-treated APOE+/+ mice than in controls. Bcl-2 and IGF-1 mRNA transcripts were reduced only in the APOE-/- -challenged mice. Altogether our findings suggest APOE-independent Ala-Gln regenerative effects after 5-FU challenge.

From Escherichia coli heat-stable enterotoxin to mammalian endogenous guanylin hormones.

The isolation of heat-stable enterotoxin (STa) from Escherichia coli and cholera toxin from Vibrio cholerae has increased our knowledge of specific mechanisms of action that could be used as pharmacological tools to understand the guanylyl cyclase-C and the adenylyl cyclase enzymatic systems. These discoveries have also been instrumental in increasing our understanding of the basic mechanisms that control the electrolyte and water balance in the gut, kidney, and urinary tracts under normal conditions and in disease. Herein, we review the evolution of genes of the guanylin family and STa genes from bacteria to fish and mammals. We also describe new developments and perspectives regarding these novel bacterial compounds and peptide hormones that act in electrolyte and water balance. The available data point toward new therapeutic perspectives for pathological features such as functional gastrointestinal disorders associated with constipation, colorectal cancer, cystic fibrosis, asthma, hypertension, gastrointestinal barrier function damage associated with enteropathy, enteric infection, malnutrition, satiety, food preferences, obesity, metabolic syndrome, and effects on behavior and brain disorders such as attention deficit, hyperactivity disorder, and schizophrenia.

From Escherichia coli heat-stable enterotoxin to mammalian endogenous guanylin hormones

The isolation of heat-stable enterotoxin (STa) from Escherichia coli and cholera toxin from Vibrio cholerae has increased our knowledge of specific mechanisms of action that could be used as pharmacological tools to understand the guanylyl cyclase-C and the adenylyl cyclase enzymatic systems. These discoveries have also been instrumental in increasing our understanding of the basic mechanisms that control the electrolyte and water balance in the gut, kidney, and urinary tracts under normal conditions and in disease. Herein, we review the evolution of genes of the guanylin family and STa genes from bacteria to fish and mammals. We also describe new developments and perspectives regarding these novel bacterial compounds and peptide hormones that act in electrolyte and water balance. The available data point toward new therapeutic perspectives for pathological features such as functional gastrointestinal disorders associated with constipation, colorectal cancer, cystic fibrosis, asthma, hypertension, gastrointestinal barrier function damage associated with enteropathy, enteric infection, malnutrition, satiety, food preferences, obesity, metabolic syndrome, and effects on behavior and brain disorders such as attention deficit, hyperactivity disorder, and schizophrenia.

Sildenafil decreases rat tracheal hyperresponsiveness to carbachol and changes canonical transient receptor potential gene expression after antigen challenge

Inhibition of type-5 phosphodiesterase by sildenafil decreases capacitative Ca2+ entry mediated by transient receptor potential proteins (TRPs) in the pulmonary artery. These families of channels, especially the canonical TRP (TRPC) subfamily, may be involved in the development of bronchial hyperresponsiveness, a hallmark of asthma. In the present study, we evaluated i) the effects of sildenafil on tracheal rings of rats subjected to antigen challenge, ii) whether the extent of TRPC gene expression may be modified by antigen challenge, and iii) whether inhibition of type-5 phosphodiesterase (PDE5) may alter TRPC gene expression after antigen challenge. Sildenafil (0.1 µM to 0.6 mM) fully relaxed carbachol-induced contractions in isolated tracheal rings prepared from naive male Wistar rats (250-300 g) by activating the NO-cGMP-K+ channel pathway. Rats sensitized to antigen by intraperitoneal injections of ovalbumin were subjected to antigen challenge by ovalbumin inhalation, and their tracheal rings were used to study the effects of sildenafil, which more effectively inhibited contractions induced by either carbachol (10 µM) or extracellular Ca2+ restoration after thapsigargin (1 µM) treatment. Antigen challenge increased the expression of the TRPC1 and TRPC4 genes but not the expression of the TRPC5 and TRPC6 genes. Applied before the antigen challenge, sildenafil increased the gene expression, which was evaluated by RT-PCR, of TRPC1 and TRPC6, decreased TRPC5 expression, and was inert against TRPC4. Thus, we conclude that PDE5 inhibition is involved in the development of an airway hyperresponsive phenotype in rats after antigen challenge by altering TRPC gene expression.

Sildenafil decreases rat tracheal hyperresponsiveness to carbachol and changes canonical transient receptor potential gene expression after antigen challenge.

Inhibition of type-5 phosphodiesterase by sildenafil decreases capacitative Ca2+ entry mediated by transient receptor potential proteins (TRPs) in the pulmonary artery. These families of channels, especially the canonical TRP (TRPC) subfamily, may be involved in the development of bronchial hyperresponsiveness, a hallmark of asthma. In the present study, we evaluated i) the effects of sildenafil on tracheal rings of rats subjected to antigen challenge, ii) whether the extent of TRPC gene expression may be modified by antigen challenge, and iii) whether inhibition of type-5 phosphodiesterase (PDE5) may alter TRPC gene expression after antigen challenge. Sildenafil (0.1 µM to 0.6 mM) fully relaxed carbachol-induced contractions in isolated tracheal rings prepared from naive male Wistar rats (250-300 g) by activating the NO-cGMP-K+ channel pathway. Rats sensitized to antigen by intraperitoneal injections of ovalbumin were subjected to antigen challenge by ovalbumin inhalation, and their tracheal rings were used to study the effects of sildenafil, which more effectively inhibited contractions induced by either carbachol (10 µM) or extracellular Ca2+ restoration after thapsigargin (1 µM) treatment. Antigen challenge increased the expression of the TRPC1 and TRPC4 genes but not the expression of the TRPC5 and TRPC6 genes. Applied before the antigen challenge, sildenafil increased the gene expression, which was evaluated by RT-PCR, of TRPC1 and TRPC6, decreased TRPC5 expression, and was inert against TRPC4. Thus, we conclude that PDE5 inhibition is involved in the development of an airway hyperresponsive phenotype in rats after antigen challenge by altering TRPC gene expression.

ApoE polymorphisms and diarrheal outcomes in Brazilian shanty town children.

A series of studies have shown that the heavy burdens of diarrheal diseases in the first 2 formative years of life in children living in urban shanty towns have negative effects on physical and cognitive development lasting into later childhood. We have shown that APOE4 is relatively common in shanty town children living in Brazil (13.4%) and suggest that APOE4 has a protective role in cognitive development as well as weight-for-height in children with heavy burdens of diarrhea in early childhood (64/123; 52%), despite being a marker for cognitive decline with Alzheimer's and cardiovascular diseases later in life. APOE2 frequency was higher among children with heaviest diarrhea burdens during the first 2 years of life, as detected by PCR using the restriction fragment length polymorphism method, raising the possibility that ApoE-cholesterol balance might be critical for growth and cognitive development under the stress of heavy diarrhea burdens and when an enriched fat diet is insufficient. These findings provide a potential explanation for the survival advantage in evolution of genes, which might raise cholesterol levels during heavy stress of diarrhea burdens and malnutrition early in life.

ApoE polymorphisms and diarrheal outcomes in Brazilian shanty town children

A series of studies have shown that the heavy burdens of diarrheal diseases in the first 2 formative years of life in children living in urban shanty towns have negative effects on physical and cognitive development lasting into later childhood. We have shown that APOE4 is relatively common in shanty town children living in Brazil (13.4 percent) and suggest that APOE4 has a protective role in cognitive development as well as weight-for-height in children with heavy burdens of diarrhea in early childhood (64/123; 52 percent), despite being a marker for cognitive decline with Alzheimer’s and cardiovascular diseases later in life. APOE2 frequency was higher among children with heaviest diarrhea burdens during the first 2 years of life, as detected by PCR using the restriction fragment length polymorphism method, raising the possibility that ApoE-cholesterol balance might be critical for growth and cognitive development under the stress of heavy diarrhea burdens and when an enriched fat diet is insufficient. These findings provide a potential explanation for the survival advantage in evolution of genes, which might raise cholesterol levels during heavy stress of diarrhea burdens and malnutrition early in life.

Thalidomide and pentoxifylline block the renal effects of supernatants of macrophages activated with Crotalus durissus cascavella venom

Because thalidomide and pentoxifylline inhibit the synthesis and release of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), we determined the effect of these drugs on the renal damage induced by supernatants of macrophages activated with Crotalus durissus cascavella venom in order to identify the role of TNF-alpha in the process. Rat peritoneal macrophages were collected with RPMI medium and stimulated in vitro with C.d. cascavella venom (10 µg/ml) in the absence and presence of thalidomide (15 µM) or pentoxifylline (500 µM) for 1 h and washed and kept in culture for 2 h. Supernatant (1 ml) was tested on an isolated perfused rat kidney (N = 6 for each group). The first 30 min of each experiment were used as control. The supernatant was added to the perfusion system. All experiments lasted 120 min. The toxic effect of the preparation of venom-stimulated macrophages on renal parameters was determined. At 120 min, thalidomide (Thalid) and pentoxifylline (Ptx) inhibited (P < 0.05) the increase in perfusion pressure caused by the venom (control = 114.0 ± 1.3; venom = 137.1 ± 1.5; Thalid = 121.0 ± 2.5; Ptx = 121.4 ± 4.0 mmHg), renal vascular resistance (control = 4.5 ± 0.2; venom = 7.3 ± 0.6; Thalid = 4.5 ± 0.9; Ptx = 4.8 ± 0.6 mmHg/ml g-1 min-1), urinary flow (control = 0.23 ± 0.001; venom = 0.44 ± 0.01; Thalid = 0.22 ± 0.007; Ptx = 0.21 ± 0.009 ml g-1 min-1), glomerular filtration rate (control = 0.72 ± 0.06; venom = 1.91 ± 0.11; Thalid = 0.75 ± 0.04; Ptx = 0.77 ± 0.05 ml g-1 min-1) and the decrease in percent tubular sodium transport (control = 77.0 ± 0.9; venom = 73.9 ± 0.66; Thalid = 76.6 ± 1.1; Ptx = 81.8 ± 2.0 percent), percent tubular chloride transport (control = 77.1 ± 1.2; venom = 71.4 ± 1.1; Thalid = 77.6 ± 1.7; Ptx = 76.8 ± 1.2 percent), and percent tubular potassium transport (control = 72.7 ± 1.1; venom = 63.0 ± 1.1; Thalid = 72.6 ± 1.0; Ptx = 74.8 ± 1.0 percent), 30 min before and during the stimulation of macrophages with C.d. cascavella venom. These data suggest the participation of TNF-alpha in the renal effects induced by supernatant of macrophages activated with C.d. cascavella venom.