Racial-Ethnic Gaps in Pandemic-Related Economic Hardship: Age Differences among Older Adults.

OBJECTIVES: Racial-ethnic disparities in experiences of economic hardship during the pandemic are well documented in the population overall and among older adults. Existing research shows that this economic hardship was much less common at older than younger ages. Little is known about the intersection of racial-ethnic and age disparities in pandemic-related hardship in later life. This research report investigated racial-ethnic gaps in economic hardship by age group among older adults. METHODS: Data were from the 2018 and 2020 U.S. Health and Retirement Study (HRS) including the 2020 COVID-19 module. We estimated Heckman-corrected linear probability models to examine differences in experiences of pandemic-related economic hardship in the 2020 HRS by race-ethnicity (non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, U.S.-born Hispanic, foreign-born Hispanic) across age groups (55-64, 65-74, 75+). In the multivariable analysis, we controlled for sociodemographic characteristics, participation in social programs, preexisting health conditions and behaviors, and economic resources from the 2018 HRS. RESULTS: Experiences of economic hardship declined with age within each racial-ethnic group. Racial-ethnic gaps in hardship remained at older ages without any controls. However, when all controls were added, racial-ethnic gaps in economic hardship were eliminated for those ages 75+. Individual characteristics prior to the pandemic explained racial-ethnic differences in hardship for the oldest adults (75+) but did not explain gaps for those ages 55-74. DISCUSSION: Results point to structural factors generating new racial-ethnic gaps in pandemic-related economic hardship among those approaching retirement (ages 55-74) that did not affect the oldest adults (ages 75+).

Age Differences in Experiences of Pandemic-Related Health and Economic Challenges Among Adults Aged 55 and Older.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The oldest adults faced the highest risk of death and hospitalization from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), but less is known about whether they also were the most likely to experience pandemic-related economic, healthcare, and mental health challenges. Guided by prior research on vulnerability versus resilience among older adults, the current study investigated age differences in economic hardship, delays in medical care, and mental health outcomes among adults aged 55 and older. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Data were from the COVID-19 module and Leave Behind Questionnaire in the 2020 Health and Retirement Study (HRS). We estimated linear probability models to examine differences in experiences of pandemic-related economic and health challenges by age group (55-64, 65-74, 75+) with and without controls for preexisting sociodemographic, social program, health, and economic characteristics from the 2018 HRS. Models accounting for differential mortality also were estimated. RESULTS: Adults aged 65-74 and 75+ experienced fewer economic and mental health challenges and those aged 75+ were less likely to delay medical care than adults aged 55-64. Age gradients were consistent across a broad range of measures and were robust to including controls. For all age groups, economic challenges were less common than delays in medical care or experiences of loneliness, stress, or being emotionally overwhelmed. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS: Even though the oldest adults were at the greatest risk of death and hospitalization from COVID-19, they experienced fewer secondary pandemic-related challenges. Future research should continue to explore the sources of this resilience for older adults.

Mother-Child Closeness and Adult Children's Time and Financial Assistance.

OBJECTIVES: Drawing on the intergenerational solidarity framework and life course perspective, the authors assessed how mother-child closeness across different life stages is associated with adult children's time and financial assistance to mothers in later life. METHODS: Using children's reports of their perceived closeness to mothers from Waves 1 to 4 of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) and mothers' reports about adult children's time and financial assistance from Wave 2 of the Add Health Parent Study (AHPS) in the United States, the authors investigated how mother-child closeness during adolescence, emerging adulthood, and young adulthood is related to midlife adult children's support with a focus on difference between mother-daughter (N = 934) and mother-son (N = 899) dyads. RESULTS: Closeness during young adulthood was an important determinant of adult children's time assistance to their mothers, regardless of child's gender. Daughters' closeness with mothers during young adulthood also had a direct association with their financial support to mothers but not sons'. In contrast, sons' perceived closeness during emerging adulthood had a direct association with their financial support later in life. Closeness during adolescence had no direct association with later-life transfers of time or money but had an indirect association through its influence on mother-child relationships at subsequent life stages. DISCUSSION: Mother-child closeness is a continuously evolving process. Although mother-child bond formed during adolescence has no direct influence on help to mothers later in life, it shapes the progression of mother-child interactions over time that eventuates in support.

The Changing Demography of Late-Life Family Caregiving: A Research Agenda to Understand Future Care Networks for an Aging U.S. Population.

Repeated claims that a dwindling supply of potential caregivers is creating a crisis in care for the U.S. aging population have not been well-grounded in empirical research. Concerns about the supply of family care do not adequately recognize factors that may modify the availability and willingness of family and friends to provide care to older persons in need of assistance or the increasing heterogeneity of the older population. In this paper, we set forth a framework that places family caregiving in the context of older adults' care needs, the alternatives available to them, and the outcomes of that care. We focus on care networks, rather than individuals, and discuss the demographic and social changes that may alter the formation of care networks in the future. Last, we identify research areas to prioritize in order to better support planning efforts to care for the aging U.S. population.

Gray Divorce During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

OBJECTIVES: Drawing on emerging evidence that the pandemic appears to have impeded both the divorce process and actual divorces, we examined whether the gray divorce rate (i.e., divorce among adults aged 50+) declined following the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: Data from the 2019 and 2021 American Community Survey (ACS) were used to track changes in gray divorce. With the 2021 ACS, we estimated pandemic-era gray divorce rates across sociodemographic subgroups for middle-aged and older adults. We then pooled the 2019 (N = 892,700) and 2021 (N = 898,828) data to examine whether the risk of divorce changed with the onset of the pandemic net of sociodemographic characteristics, distinguishing trends for middle-aged versus older adults. RESULTS: The gray divorce rate dropped following the onset of the pandemic. This drop was more pronounced among middle-aged than older adults. For older adults, the divorce rate essentially stalled. DISCUSSION: The gray divorce rate now mirrors the overall trend of modest decline in U.S. divorce patterns. Whether the gray divorce rate continues to shrink as society transitions to a postpandemic environment awaits future research.

Changes in late-life assistance networks for Black and White older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic has disproportionately impacted older Black Americans. Given that assistance networks play a crucial role in older adults' ability to respond to challenges, we sought to investigate whether older adults' assistance network size changed during the COVID-19 pandemic and differed by race. METHODS: We analyzed data from the 2018-2020 rounds of the U.S. National Health and Aging Trends Study for Black and White adults aged 70 and older receiving help in the community or residential care settings. We used ordinary least squares regression to compare changes in assistance network size in the 2 years pre-COVID-19 (2018-2019, N = 3438) to changes in size at the onset of COVID-19 (2019-2020, N = 3185). RESULTS: Black older adults had larger assistance networks with a greater number of family helpers before and during the pandemic compared to their White counterparts. Assistance network size for older adults increased before but not during the pandemic mostly due to declines in unpaid nonrelative helpers and lack of increase in paid helpers. These effects did not differ by race. CONCLUSIONS: Black and White older adults experienced similarly sized reductions in their assistance networks as a consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic. Future research should investigate the relationship between these network changes and the unmet needs of older adults.

A Brief Report on Living Arrangements Following Gray Divorce.

OBJECTIVES: We offer new insights on how older adults in the United States navigate the aftermath of gray divorce (i.e., divorce that occurs among adults aged 50+) by describing their living arrangements upon divorce and tracking the stability of these configurations over time. Living arrangements are important to decipher because they are linked to health, well-being, and longevity. METHODS: Using data from the 1998-2014 Health and Retirement Study, we uncovered patterns of U.S. older adult living arrangements upon divorce (N = 1,057), distinguishing among those who lived alone, lived with others, and lived with a new partner. Multinomial logistic regression models were estimated to assess how individual characteristics (demographics, marital biography, economic resources, health, and social ties) were associated with these configurations. Cumulative survival probabilities gauged the relative stability of these 3 living arrangements. RESULTS: About half of U.S. adults lived alone upon gray divorce, another one-third lived with others, and the remaining 14% lived with a new partner. Adults living with a new partner tended to exhibit the most advantaged sociodemographic profiles, whereas those living solo or with others were largely comparable. More than 70% of adults experienced a subsequent living arrangement transition if they lived with others upon divorce, versus just 50% of those living alone and only 30% of those with a new partner. DISCUSSION: After divorce, older adults reside in a range of living arrangements, some of which are more stable than others. Future work should address whether and how these arrangements and their durability are related to postdivorce adjustment.

COVID-19-Related Changes in Assistance Networks for U.S. Older Adults With and Without Dementia.

OBJECTIVES: Prepandemic research suggests assistance networks for older adults grow over time and are larger for those living with dementia. We examined how assistance networks of older adults changed in response to the onset of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and whether these changes differed for those with and without dementia. METHODS: We used 3 rounds of the National Health and Aging Trends Study. We estimated multinomial logistic regression models to test whether changes in assistance networks during COVID-19 (2019-2020)-defined as expansion, contraction, and adaptation-differed from changes prior to COVID-19 (2018-2019). We also estimated ordinary least squares regression models to test differences in the numbers of helpers assisting with one (specialist) versus multiple (generalist) domains before and during COVID-19. For both sets of outcomes, we investigated whether pandemic-related changes differed for those with and without dementia. RESULTS: Over all activity domains, a greater proportion of assistance networks adapted during COVID-19 compared to the pre-COVID-19 period (relative risk ratio = 1.19, p < .05). Contractions in networks occurred for those without dementia. Transportation assistance contracted for those with and without dementia, and mobility/self-care assistance contracted for those with dementia. The average number of generalist helpers decreased during COVID-19 (ß = -0.09, p < .001). DISCUSSION: Early in the pandemic, assistance networks of older adults adapted by substituting helpers, by contracting to reduce exposures with more intimate tasks for recipients with dementia, and by reducing transportation assistance. Future research should explore the impact of such changes on the well-being of older adults and their assistance networks.

The Rising Midlife First Marriage Rate in the U.S.

Objective: This study documented change in the midlife first marriage rate for U.S. adults aged 40-59 between 1990 and 2019 and assessed the sociodemographic correlates of midlife first marriage formation for today's women and men. Background: Median ages at first marriage are at record highs for women and men, signaling that marriage may be increasingly occurring at older ages. However, first marriage formation among midlife adults remains largely overlooked. Method: Data from the 1990 U.S. Vital Statistics and the 2010 and 2019 American Community Survey (ACS) were used to estimate change in women's and men's first marriage rates across age groups, with a focus on how the rate has changed for midlife adults. Average marginal effects (AMEs) were derived from logistic regression analyses that drew on the 2019 ACS to examine associations between sociodemographic factors and midlife first marriage formation for women and men. Results: Since 1990, the midlife first marriage rate has increased by 75% for women and 45% for men. The shares of women and men entering a first marriage who were aged 40-59 quadrupled between 1990 and 2019 (rising from 2% to 9% among women and from 3% to 12% among men). Some of the well-established predictors of first marriage in young adulthood operated uniquely for first marriage formation in midlife. Conclusion: Future research on first marriage formation should incorporate midlife adults.

The Graying of Divorce: A Half Century of Change.

OBJECTIVES: We traced the historical arc of the rise in gray divorce (i.e., divorce that occurs among adults aged 50 and older) in the United States since 1970, elucidating unique patterns for middle-aged (aged 50-64) versus older (aged 65 and older) adults. METHODS: Data from the 1970, 1980, and 1990 U.S. Vital Statistics Reports and the 2010 and 2019 American Community Survey (ACS) were used to chart the trends in gray divorce over the past half century. Drawing on the 2019 ACS, we estimated gray divorce rates across sociodemographic subgroups for today's middle-aged and older adults. We pooled the 2010 (N = 757,835) and 2019 (N = 892,714) ACS data to assess whether divorce risks are shifting for middle-aged versus older adults. RESULTS: The gray divorce rate was low and grew only modestly between 1970 and 1990 before doubling by 2010. Since 2010, the rate has decreased slightly (but the decrease is not statistically significant). The gray divorce rate has stagnated among middle-aged adults but continues to climb among older adults. DISCUSSION: Our study illustrates the graying of divorce over the past half century. Nowadays, 36% of U.S. adults getting divorced are aged 50 or older. The only age group with an increasing divorce rate is adults aged 65 and older, raising new questions about how they will navigate old age.

Sole Family Survivors: Older Adults Lacking Family of Origin Kin.

OBJECTIVES: We introduced a unique form of kinlessness: sole family survivorship, which describes the lack of family of origin (i.e., biological parents and siblings) kin. This form of kinlessness may be particularly consequential for older adults who experience other forms of kinlessness (e.g., no spouse/partner or no children) as they are especially likely to have relied on their family of origin for support. METHODS: Data from the 1998-2014 Health and Retirement Study (N = 148,346 person-waves) were used to estimate the prevalence of sole family survivorship among adults aged 55 and older and men and women aged 55-74 and 75+. Variation in prevalence levels of sole family survivorship across sociodemographic characteristics, health indicators, and family factors were also estimated. Finally, we tracked cohort trends in sole family survivorship. RESULTS: More than 1 in 10 adults aged 55+ were sole family survivors and this figure rose to more than 1 in 4 among those aged 75+. Adults with no spouse/partner and no children were especially likely to be sole family survivors, meaning they face a double burden of kinlessness. DISCUSSION: Sole family survivorship represents the culmination of loss of multiple, lifelong kin ties. It is more common among those lacking other close kin, signaling the presence of a uniquely vulnerable group of older adults who experience multiple forms of kinlessness. Future research should address how older adults and society at large adapt to kinlessness to ensure successful aging.

The Roles of Gray Divorce and Subsequent Repartnering for Parent-Adult Child Relationships.

OBJECTIVES: Divorce is now widespread in later life, yet little is known about how older adults and their adult children respond in the aftermath of gray divorce. Guided by the life course perspective, this study examines the consequences of gray divorce and subsequent repartnering for parent-adult child relationships from the parent's perspective. METHODS: Using longitudinal data from the 1998-2014 Health and Retirement Study in the United States, we estimated growth curve models to compare fathers' and mothers' frequent contact with and financial support to their adult children prior to, during, and following gray divorce. RESULTS: Gray divorce and repartnering had disparate effects on father- versus mother-adult child relationships. Following a divorce, fathers' frequent contact with their adult children decreased but financial support to their adult children increased. Fathers' repartnering had an enduring negative effect on frequent contact with their children. Gray divorce did not alter mothers' financial support to adult children and it actually increased interaction between mothers and adult children as the odds of frequent contact doubled upon divorce. Repartnering had no appreciable effects on mothers' relationships with their adult children. DISCUSSION: The results of our study are consistent with prior research showing that divorce creates a matrifocal tilt in our kinship system. The shifting dynamics of parent-adult child relationships in response to gray divorce and repartnering raise questions about whether gray-divorced parents will be able to rely on their adult children for care as they age.

Does the Transition to Grandparenthood Deter Gray Divorce? A Test of the Braking Hypothesis.

The gray divorce rate, which describes divorce among individuals aged 50 and older, has doubled since 1990. Extending prior research that showed the transition to parenthood has a "braking effect" on divorce, we examined whether the transition to grandparenthood, an emotionally meaningful midlife event that typically renews midlife marriages, exerts an analogous "braking effect" on gray divorce. Using panel data from the 1998-2014 Health and Retirement Study, we found that becoming biological grandparents has a large deterrent effect on gray divorce that persists even after accounting for a host of other factors known to be associated with divorce. However, the transition to step grandparenthood has no protective effect on gray divorce. Our study demonstrates the importance of the larger family system and in particular the life webs connecting the generations for promoting marital stability among midlife couples.

The Economic Consequences of Gray Divorce for Women and Men.

OBJECTIVES: Gray divorce, which describes divorce among persons aged 50 and older, is increasingly common reflecting the doubling of the gray divorce rate since 1990. Yet, surprisingly little is known about the consequences of gray divorce and in particular how women and men fare economically during the aftermath. METHOD: Using longitudinal data from the 2004-2014 Health and Retirement Study, we estimated hybrid fixed/random-effects models comparing women's and men's economic well-being prior to, during, and following gray divorce and subsequent repartnering. RESULTS: Women experienced a 45% decline in their standard of living (measured by an income-to-needs ratio), whereas men's dropped by just 21%. These declines persisted over time for men, and only reversed for women following repartnering, which essentially offset women's losses associated with gray divorce. No gender gap emerged for changes in wealth following divorce with both women and men experiencing roughly a 50% drop. Similarly, repartnering was ameliorative only for women's wealth. DISCUSSION: Gray divorce is often financially devastating, especially for women. Although repartnering seems to reverse most of the economic costs of gray divorce for women, few form new co-residential unions after divorce. This study offers a cautionary tale about the financial aftermath of gray divorce, which is likely to contribute to growing economic disadvantage among older adults.

Midlife Marital Dissolution and the Onset of Cognitive Impairment.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Marital dissolution has become more common in midlife with the doubling of the divorce rate among middle-aged adults. Guided by the stress model that stipulates losing economic, social, and psychological resources lowers well-being, we posited that midlife adults who experienced divorce or widowhood were at greater risk of cognitive impairment than the continuously married. Subsequent repartnering was expected to negate the increased risk. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We used data from the 1998-2016 Health and Retirement Study to estimate discrete-time event history models using logistic regression to predict cognitive impairment onset for men and women. RESULTS: Roughly 27% of men who experienced spousal death in midlife went on to experience mild cognitive impairment by age 65. For women, experiencing divorce or widowhood was associated with higher odds of cognitive impairment onset although these differentials were accounted for by economic, social, and psychological resources. Men and women who repartnered after marital dissolution did not appreciably differ from their continuously married counterparts in terms of their likelihoods of cognitive impairment onset. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS: A stressful life event, midlife marital dissolution can be detrimental to cognitive well-being, placing individuals at increased risk of developing dementia in later life. The growing diversity of partnership experiences during the second half of life points to the continued importance of examining how union dissolution and formation shape health and well-being.

The Roles of Marital Dissolution and Subsequent Repartnering on Loneliness in Later Life.

OBJECTIVES: Loneliness in later life is associated with poorer health and higher risk of mortality. Our study assesses whether gray divorced adults report higher levels of loneliness than the widowed and whether social support or repartnership offset loneliness. METHOD: Using data from the 2010 and 2012 Health and Retirement Study, we estimated ordinary least squares regression models for women (n = 2,362) and men (n = 1,127) to examine differences in loneliness by dissolution pathway (i.e., divorce versus widowhood), accounting for social support and repartnership. RESULTS: Divorced men were lonelier than their widowed counterparts. Although social support reduced loneliness among men, the difference between the divorced and widowed persisted. Repartnership assuaged men's loneliness and reduced the variation between divorced and widowed men. Among women, the results did not reveal differences in loneliness for the divorced and widowed although social support and repartnership linked to less loneliness. DISCUSSION: Later-life marital dissolutions increasingly occur through divorce rather than spousal death. Some older adults go on to form new partnerships. Our findings demonstrate the importance of gerontological research widening the lens beyond widowhood to consider the ramifications of later-life divorce and repartnership for well-being.

Division of Parent Care Among Adult Children.

OBJECTIVES: Many older adults rely on their children's support to sustain community residence. Although filial norms encourage adult children to help their parents, not every child provides parent care in times of need. The majority of prior studies have adopted an individualistic perspective to examine factors associated with individual children's caregiving behavior. This study complements previous work by using the family systems perspective to understand how caregiving responsibilities are allocated among children in the family and how the pattern of care division evolves over time. METHOD: Data came from seven rounds of the National Health and Aging Trends Study (2011-2017), in which community-dwelling respondents were asked about all of their children and which children provided them with care. Multilevel models were estimated to examine how caregiving responsibilities were distributed among children and how the children's caregiving efforts responded to changes in their parents' frailty. RESULTS: About three quarters of older adults reported receiving help from only one child, and the average of monthly care hours was about 50 at baseline. As parents' frailty increased, the proportion of children providing parents rose and the allocation of parent-care hours became more equal. DISCUSSION: This study underscores the importance of using the family systems perspective to better understand adult children's caregiving behavior. Although just one adult child providing care is the most common caregiving arrangement initially, adult children tend to work with their siblings to support parents' aging in place as parents' need for care increases.

Depressive Symptoms Following Later-life Marital Dissolution and Subsequent Repartnering.

The doubling of the divorce rate among individuals over age 50 during the past 20 years underscores the urgency of studying the consequences of gray divorce and subsequent repartnering for adult well-being. We filled this gap by using the 1998-to-2014 Health and Retirement Study to evaluate how the levels of depressive symptoms changed following gray divorce versus widowhood. Individuals who divorced or became widowed already had experienced higher levels of depressive symptoms before dissolution relative to those who remained married. Compared with those who became widowed, those who transitioned to divorce experienced a lower elevation and a shorter time to recovery in depressive symptoms. When repartnering, both groups experienced similar magnitudes of initial reduction and subsequent rates of increase. Both the negative consequences of marital dissolution and the beneficial effects of repartnership for mental health persisted for several years, although ultimately they reverted to their predissolution levels of depressive symptoms.

Sibling Influences, Sibling Similarities, and Parent Care in Late Life.

Researchers have extensively examined why some particular adult children provide care to their aged parents, but rarely considered sibling similarities and influences in their examinations. Guided by social learning theory and diffusion of responsibility theory, we investigate whether sibling similarities are associated with adult children's care hours, net of the parent's and child's characteristics. Based on social comparison theory, we further examine whether such associations differ across adult children, depending on whether adult children share the same characteristics as their siblings. Using Round 5 data from the National Health and Aging Trends Study, we find that adult children provide more care hours when siblings are close in age, supporting social learning theory. In contrast, adult children provide fewer care hours in the presence of a greater share of siblings who are unpartnered or close to the parents, supporting diffusion of responsibility theory. Consistent with social comparison theory, social learning is stronger for younger adult children, and diffusion of responsibility is weaker when adult children are unpartnered or close to the parents. Findings from this study highlight the importance for future research of going beyond parent-child dyads and incorporate sibling influences when studying the caregiving behavior of adult children.

Repartnering Following Gray Divorce: The Roles of Resources and Constraints for Women and Men.

The doubling of the gray divorce rate (i.e., divorce at age 50 or older) over the past few decades portends growth in later-life repartnering, yet little is known about the mechanisms undergirding decisions to repartner after gray divorce. Using data from the 1998-2014 Health and Retirement Study, we examined women's and men's likelihoods of forming a remarriage or cohabiting union following gray divorce by estimating competing risk multinomial logistic regression models using discrete-time event history data. About 22 % of women and 37 % of men repartnered within 10 years after gray divorce. Repartnering more often occurred through cohabitation than remarriage, particularly for men. Resources such as economic factors, health, and social ties were linked to repartnering, but constraints captured by the contours of the marital biography were also salient, underscoring the distinctive features of union formation in later life.