Divergent signaling pathways cooperatively regulate TGFß induction of cysteine-rich protein 2 in vascular smooth muscle cells.

BACKGROUND: Vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) of the arterial wall play a critical role in the development of occlusive vascular diseases. Cysteine-rich protein 2 (CRP2) is a VSMC-expressed LIM-only protein, which functionally limits VSMC migration and protects against pathological vascular remodeling. The multifunctional cytokine TGFß has been implicated to play a role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis through numerous downstream signaling pathways. We showed previously that TGFß upregulates CRP2 expression; however, the detailed signaling mechanisms remain unclear. RESULTS: TGFß treatment of VSMCs activated both Smad2/3 and ATF2 phosphorylation. Individually knocking down Smad2/3 or ATF2 pathways with siRNA impaired the TGFß induction of CRP2, indicating that both contribute to CRP2 expression. Inhibiting TßRI kinase activity by SB431542 or TßRI knockdown abolished Smad2/3 phosphorylation but did not alter ATF2 phosphorylation, indicating while Smad2/3 phosphorylation was TßRI-dependent ATF2 phosphorylation was independent of TßRI. Inhibiting Src kinase activity by SU6656 suppressed TGFß-induced RhoA and ATF2 activation but not Smad2 phosphorylation. Blocking ROCK activity, the major downstream target of RhoA, abolished ATF2 phosphorylation and CRP2 induction but not Smad2 phosphorylation. Furthermore, JNK inhibition with SP600125 reduced TGFß-induced ATF2 (but not Smad2) phosphorylation and CRP2 protein expression while ROCK inhibition blocked JNK activation. These results indicate that downstream of TßRII, Src family kinase-RhoA-ROCK-JNK signaling pathway mediates TßRI-independent ATF2 activation. Promoter analysis revealed that the TGFß induction of CRP2 was mediated through the CRE and SBE promoter elements that were located in close proximity. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate that two signaling pathways downstream of TGFß converge on the CRE and SBE sites of the Csrp2 promoter to cooperatively control CRP2 induction in VSMCs, which represents a previously unrecognized mechanism of VSMC gene induction by TGFß.

Novel and unexpected functions of zebrafish CCAAT box binding transcription factor (NF-Y) B subunit during cartilages development.

We used zebrafish as a model to study the biological functions of NF-YB during early development. Both RT-PCR and whole-mount in situ hybridization experiments revealed that nf-yb was a maternally inherited gene. Later, its expression was restricted in the future head cartilages as well as in the developing notochord. Embryos after injection with nf-yb-morpholino displayed reduced-head phenotypes, including smaller head (WT, length of head, L: 0.515+/-0.019 mm, width of head, W: 0.323+/-0.077 mm; nf-yb-morphant, L: 0.347+/-0.037 mm; W: 0.266+/-0.018 mm), sharpen Meckel's cartilage, loss of ceratobranchial, and enlarged angles of ceratohyal (WT: 72.6+/-9.4 degrees ; nf-yb-morphant: 110.0+/-32.5 degrees ). Subsequently, those abnormalities can be rescued after injection with capped nf-yb mRNA. TUNEL assay suggested that large amounts of cell apoptosis appeared in the head region of nf-yb-morphants. Staining with digoxigenin-labeled dlx2a, sox9a, runx2b and col2a1 riboprobes showed that nf-yb-morphants displayed reduced amounts of cranial neural crest cells which are required for mandibular and branchial arches formation. These observations clearly indicate that knockdown of nf-yb translation induced parts of cranial neural crest cells apoptosis, affected cartilages formation and consequently caused reduced-head phenotypes. These findings uncover a novel and unexpected role for NF-YB as a critical modulator of neural crest cell's gene expression governing embryonic cartilage growth.