Generation and Characterization of Mice Expressing a Conditional Allele of the Interleukin-1 Receptor Type 1.

The cytokines IL-1α and IL-1ß exert powerful pro-inflammatory actions throughout the body, mediated primarily by the intracellular signaling capacity of the interleukin-1 receptor (IL-1R1). Although Il1r1 knockout mice have been informative with respect to a requirement for IL-1R1 signaling in inflammatory events, the constitutive nature of gene elimination has limited their utility in the assessment of temporal and spatial patterns of cytokine action. To pursue such questions, we have generated C57Bl/6J mice containing a floxed Il1r1 gene (Il1r1loxP/loxP), with loxP sites positioned to flank exons 3 and 4 and thereby the ability to spatially and temporally eliminate Il1r1 expression and signaling. We found that Il1r1loxP/loxP mice breed normally and exhibit no gross physical or behavioral phenotypes. Moreover, Il1r1loxP/loxP mice exhibit normal IL-1R1 receptor expression in brain and spleen, as well as normal IL-1R1-dependent increases in serum IL-6 following IL-1α injections. Breeding of Il1r1loxP/loxP mice to animals expressing a cytomegalovirus (CMV)-driven Cre recombinase afforded efficient excision at the Il1r1 locus. The Il1r1loxP/loxP line should be a valuable tool for the assessment of contributions made by IL-1R1 signaling in diverse cell types across development.

Rare coding variants of the adenosine A3 receptor are increased in autism: on the trail of the serotonin transporter regulome.

BACKGROUND: Rare genetic variation is an important class of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) risk factors and can implicate biological networks for investigation. Altered serotonin (5-HT) signaling has been implicated in ASD, and we and others have discovered multiple, rare, ASD-associated variants in the 5-HT transporter (SERT) gene leading to elevated 5-HT re-uptake and perturbed regulation. We hypothesized that loci encoding SERT regulators harbor variants that impact SERT function and/or regulation and therefore could contribute to ASD risk. The adenosine A3 receptor (A3AR) regulates SERT via protein kinase G (PKG) and other signaling pathways leading to enhanced SERT surface expression and catalytic activity. METHODS: To test our hypothesis, we asked whether rare variants in the A3AR gene (ADORA3) were increased in ASD cases vs. controls. Discovery sequencing in a case-control sample and subsequent analysis of comparison exome sequence data were conducted. We evaluated the functional impact of two variants from the discovery sample on A3AR signaling and SERT activity. RESULTS: Sequencing discovery showed an increase of rare coding variants in cases vs. controls (P=0.013). While comparison exome sequence data did not show a significant enrichment (P=0.071), combined analysis strengthened evidence for association (P=0.0025). Two variants discovered in ASD cases (Leu90Val and Val171Ile) lie in or near the ligand-binding pocket, and Leu90Val was enriched individually in cases (P=0.040). In vitro analysis of cells expressing Val90-A3AR revealed elevated basal cGMP levels compared with the wildtype receptor. Additionally, a specific A3AR agonist increased cGMP levels across the full time course studied in Val90-A3AR cells, compared to wildtype receptor. In Val90-A3AR/SERT co-transfections, agonist stimulation elevated SERT activity over the wildtype receptor with delayed 5-HT uptake activity recovery. In contrast, Ile171-A3AR was unable to support agonist stimulation of SERT. Although both Val90 and Ile171 were present in greater numbers in these ASD cases, segregation analysis in families showed incomplete penetrance, consistent with other rare ASD risk alleles. CONCLUSIONS: Our results validate the hypothesis that the SERT regulatory network harbors rare, functional variants that impact SERT activity and regulation in ASD, and encourages further investigation of this network for other variation that may impact ASD risk.

Colocalization and regulated physical association of presynaptic serotonin transporters with A3 adenosine receptors.

Activation of A3 adenosine receptors (A3ARs) rapidly enhances the activity of antidepressant-sensitive serotonin (5-HT) transporters (SERTs) in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo. A3AR agonist stimulation of SERT activity is lost in A3AR knockout mice. A3AR-stimulated SERT activity is mediated by protein kinase G1 (PKGI)- and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)-linked pathways that support, respectively, enhanced SERT surface expression and catalytic activation. The mechanisms by which A3ARs target SERTs among other potential effectors is unknown. Here we present evidence that A3ARs are coexpressed with SERT in midbrain serotonergic neurons and form a physical complex in A3AR/hSERT cotransfected cells. Treatment of A3AR/SERT-cotransfected Chinese hamster ovary cells with the A3AR agonist N6-(3-iodobenzyl)-N-methyl-5'-carbamoyladenosine (1 µM, 10 min), conditions previously reported to increase SERT surface expression and 5-HT uptake activity, enhanced the abundance of A3AR/SERT complexes in a PKGI-dependent manner. Cotransfection of SERT with L90V-A3AR, a hyperfunctional coding variant identified in subjects with autism spectrum disorder, resulted in a prolonged recovery of receptor/transporter complexes after A3AR activation. Because PKGI and nitric-oxide synthetase are required for A3AR stimulation of SERT activity, and proteins PKGI and NOS both form complexes with SERT, our findings suggest a mechanism by which signaling pathways coordinating A3AR signaling to SERT can be spatially restricted and regulated, as well as compromised by neuropsychiatric disorders.

Interleukin-1 receptor activation by systemic lipopolysaccharide induces behavioral despair linked to MAPK regulation of CNS serotonin transporters.

Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) has long been implicated in regulation of mood. Medications that block the neuronal 5-HT transporter (SERT) are used as major pharmacological treatment for mood disorders. Conversely, stimuli that enhance SERT activity might be predicted to diminish synaptic 5-HT availability and increase the risk for 5-HT-related CNS disorders. We have shown that the inflammatory cytokines enhance brain SERT activity in cultured serotonergic cells and nerve terminal preparations in vitro. In this study, we establish that intraperitoneal injection of the cytokine-inducer lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulates brain SERT activity, acting at doses below those required to induce overt motor suppression. SERT stimulation by LPS is paralleled by increased immobility in both the tail suspension test (TST) and the forced swim test (FST); antidepressant-sensitive alterations are thought to model aspects of behavioral despair. Both the stimulation of SERT activity and induced immobility are absent when LPS is administered to interleukin-1 receptor (IL-1R)-deficient mice and in the presence of SB203580, an inhibitor of IL-1R-stimulated p38 MAPK. Moreover, the ability of LPS to enhance immobility in TST is lost in SERT knockout mice. These findings reveal an ability of peripheral inflammatory stimuli to enhance brain SERT activity through IL-1R and p38 MAPK pathways in vivo and identify a requirement for SERT expression in immune-system-modulated despair behaviors. Our studies identify IL-1R- and p38 MAPK-dependent regulation of SERT as one of the mechanisms by which environmentally driven immune system activation can trigger despair-like behavior in an animal model, encouraging future analysis of the pathway for risk factors in neuropsychiatric disorders.