Longitudinal associations between exercise identity and exercise motivation: A multilevel growth curve model approach.

Past work linking exercise identity and exercise motivation has been cross-sectional. This is the first study to model the relations between different types of exercise identity and exercise motivation longitudinally. Understanding the dynamic associations between these sets of variables has implications for theory development and applied research. This was a longitudinal survey study. Participants were 180 exercisers (79 men, 101 women) from Greece, who were recruited from fitness centers and were asked to complete questionnaires assessing exercise identity (exercise beliefs and role-identity) and exercise motivation (intrinsic, identified, introjected, external motivation, and amotivation) three times within a 6 month period. Multilevel growth curve modeling examined the role of motivational regulations as within- and between-level predictors of exercise identity, and a model in which exercise identity predicted exercise motivation at the within- and between-person levels. Results showed that within-person changes in intrinsic motivation, introjected, and identified regulations were positively and reciprocally related to within-person changes in exercise beliefs; intrinsic motivation was also a positive predictor of within-person changes in role-identity but not vice versa. Between-person differences in the means of predictor variables were predictive of initial levels and average rates of change in the outcome variables. The findings show support to the proposition that a strong exercise identity (particularly exercise beliefs) can foster motivation for behaviors that reinforce this identity. We also demonstrate that such relations can be reciprocal overtime and can depend on the type of motivation in question as well as between-person differences in absolute levels of these variables.

Longitudinal associations between physical activity and depression scores in Swedish women followed 32 years.

OBJECTIVE: Physical activity is negatively associated with depressive symptoms. However, few studies consider dynamic associations of changes in physical activity and reciprocal relationships. This study aimed to perform comprehensive evaluations of relationships between physical activity and depression scores in women followed from mid- to late life. METHOD: The Prospective Population Study of Women in Gothenburg, Sweden, provided repeated measures of self-reported physical activity and depressive symptoms between 1974 and 2005 (baseline N = 676, 84.5% response rate). Depressive symptoms were assessed using the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale, and physical activity was evaluated by the Saltin-Grimby Physical Activity Level Scale. Latent growth curve analyses were used to evaluate associations of change, and cross-lagged models were used to study the reciprocal relationship between physical activity and depression scores. RESULTS: At baseline, lower levels of physical activity were related to higher depression scores. Individuals with decreasing physical activity over time evidenced higher depression scores at 32-year follow-up. Higher average baseline depression score was related to declining levels of physical activity at subsequent examinations. CONCLUSION: Reduced physical activity may be a long-term consequence of depression. It is important to address individual changes in physical activity and not merely absolute levels of physical activity in relationship to depression.

Physical exercise intervention in depressive disorders: meta-analysis and systematic review.

Previous meta-analyses investigating the effect of exercise on depression have included trials where the control condition has been categorized as placebo despite the fact that this particular placebo intervention (e.g., meditation, relaxation) has been recognized as having an antidepressant effect. Because meditation and mindfulness-based interventions are associated with depression reduction, it is impossible to separate the effect of the physical exercise from the meditation-related parts. The present study determined the efficacy of exercise in reducing symptoms of depression compared with no treatment, placebo conditions or usual care among clinically defined depressed adults. Of 89 retrieved studies, 15 passed the inclusion criteria of which 13 studies presented sufficient information for calculating effect sizes. The main result showed a significant large overall effect favoring exercise intervention. The effect size was even larger when only trials that had used no treatment or placebo conditions were analyzed. Nevertheless, effect size was reduced to a moderate level when only studies with high methodological quality were included in the analysis. Exercise may be recommended for people with mild and moderate depression who are willing, motivated, and physically healthy enough to engage in such a program.

Exercising impressive impressions: the exercise stereotype in male targets.

The main purpose of this study was to investigate the exercise stereotype and the non-exerciser stereotype on male targets, and the moderating effects of impression motivation in 184 female and 73 male Swedish undergraduate students. The participants read a description of one of the following male targets: a typical exerciser, an active living target, an excessive exerciser, a non-exerciser, or a control target, and then rated these targets on 12 personality (e.g. lazy-hard worker, dependent-independent) and eight physical (e.g. scrawny-muscular, sick-healthy) dimensions. They also completed the Impression Motivation scale of the Self-Presentation in Exercise Questionnaire, measuring motivation to self-present as an exerciser. MANCOVAs demonstrated a significant main effect for both personality and physical attributes (P<0.05). Overall, the typical exerciser, the active living target, and the excessive targets received more positive ratings than, in particular the non-exerciser target but also the control target. The non-exerciser target was rated less favorably compared with the control target. The impression motivation of the participants moderated the exercise status/rating relationship for the physical but not the personality attributes. The results of the study are discussed in the context of gender and cultural aspects of the exercise stereotype phenomenon.

Cross-cultural validity and measurement invariance of the social physique anxiety scale in five European nations.

The cross-cultural generalizability of the social physique anxiety scale (SPAS) was evaluated using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in five European nations: Britain, Estonia, Spain, Sweden, and Turkey. Motl and Conroy's (2000) methods were used to develop modified versions of the scale within each sample based on the original 12-item version. Pending the satisfactory fit of the CFAs of the modified models within each sample, it was expected that the measurement parameters and mean values of these models would be equivalent across samples in multisample CFAs. An eight-item version of the SPAS exhibited a good fit with data from the British, Estonian, and Swedish samples, and a seven-item version fitted the data well in the Spanish and Turkish samples. The eliminated items were also influenced by a method effect associated with the item wording. Multisample analyses revealed that factor loadings were equivalent across samples. Tests of latent means revealed that British and Spanish participants reported the highest levels of SPA, with Estonian participants reporting the lowest. Results indicate that the SPAS is generalizable across these cultures, although subtle variations existed in the Spanish and Turkish samples. Researchers are advised to follow these procedures to develop a valid version of the SPAS appropriate for their sample.