The Utilization of Chicken Egg White Waste-Modified Nanofiber Membrane for Anionic Dye Removal in Batch and Flow Systems: Comprehensive Investigations into Equilibrium, Kinetics, and Breakthrough Curve.

This study investigated the use of chicken egg white (CEW) waste immobilized on weak acidic nanofiber membranes for removing the anionic acid orange 7 (AO7) dye in batch and continuous flow modes. Different experiments were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of CEW-modified nanofiber membranes for AO7 removal, focusing on CEW immobilization conditions, adsorption kinetics, and thermodynamics. The CEW-modified nanofiber membrane (namely NM-COOH-CEW) exhibited a maximum AO7 adsorption capacity of 589.11 mg/g within approximately 30 min. The Freundlich isotherm model best represented the equilibrium adsorption data, while the adsorption kinetics followed a pseudo-second-order rate model. Breakthrough curve analysis using the Thomas model and the bed depth service time (BDST) model showed that the BDST model accurately described the curve, with an error percentage under 5%. To investigate AO7 elution efficiency, different concentrations of organic solvents or salts were tested as eluents. The NM-COOH-CEW nanofiber membrane exhibited promising performance as an effective adsorbent for removing AO7 dye from contaminated water.

Removal of protein wastes by cylinder-shaped NaY zeolite adsorbents decorated with heavy metal wastes.

Cylinder-shaped NaY zeolite was used as an adsorbent for eradicating both heavy metal ions (Cu2+, Zn2+, Ni2+, and Co2+) and proteins from the waste streams. As a pseudo-metal ion affinity adsorbent, NaY zeolite was used in the capture of heavy metal ions in the first stage. The amount (molar basis) of metal ions adsorbed onto NaY zeolite decreased in the order of Cu2+ > Zn2+ > Co2+ > Ni2+. Bovine serum albumin (BSA) was utilized as a model of proteins used in the waste adsorption process by NaY zeolite. The adsorption capacities of NaY zeolite and Cu/NaY zeolite for BSA were 14.90 mg BSA/g zeolite and 84.61 mg BSA/g zeolite, respectively. Moreover, Cu/NaY zeolite was highly stable in the solutions made of 2 M NaCl, 500 mM imidazole or 125 mM EDTA solutions. These conditions indicated that the minimal probability of secondary contamination caused by metal ions and soluble proteins in the waste stream. This study demonstrates the potential of Cu/NaY zeolite complex as an efficient pseudo-metal chelate adsorbent that could remove metal ions and water-soluble proteins from wastewater concurrently.

Adsorption and purification performance of lysozyme from chicken egg white using ion exchange nanofiber membrane modified by ethylene diamine and bromoacetic acid.

A high-performance polyacid ion exchange (IEX) nanofiber membrane was used in membrane chromatography for the recovery of lysozyme from chicken egg white (CEW). The polyacid IEX nanofiber membrane (P-BrA) was prepared by the functionalization of polyacrylonitrile (PAN) nanofiber membrane with ethylene diamine (EDA) and bromoacetic acid (BrA). The adsorption performance of P-BrA was evaluated under various operating conditions using Pall filter holder. The results showed that optimal conditions of IEX membrane chromatography for lysozyme adsorption were 10% (w/v) of CEW, pH 9 and 0.1 mL/min. The purification factor and yield of lysozyme were 402 and 91%, respectively. The adsorption process was further scaled up to a larger loading volume, and the purification performance was found to be consistent. Furthermore, the regeneration of IEX nanofiber membrane was achieved under mild conditions. The adsorption process was repeated for five times and the adsorption capacity of adsorber was found to be unaffected.

Antibacterial efficacy of quaternized chitosan/poly (vinyl alcohol) nanofiber membrane crosslinked with blocked diisocyanate.

N-[(2-hydroxyl-3-trimethylammonium) propyl] chitosan chloride (HTCC), which is a type of chitosan derivative with quaternary ammonium groups, possesses a higher antibacterial activity as compared to the pristine chitosan. The nanofiber membranes made of HTCC are attractive for applications demanding for antibacterial function. However, the hydrophilic nature of HTCC makes it unsuitable for electrospinning of nanofibers. Hence, biodegradable polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) was proposed as an additive to improve the electrospinnability of HTCC. In this work, PVA/HTCC nanofiber membrane was crosslinked with the blocked diisocyanate (BI) to enhance the stability of nanofiber membrane in water. Microbiological assessments showed that the PVA/HTCC/BI nanofiber membranes possessed a good antibacterial efficacy (∼100 %) against E. coli. Moreover, the biocompatibility of PVA/HTCC/BI nanofiber membrane was proven by the cytotoxicity test on mouse fibroblasts. These promising results indicated that the PVA/HTCC/BI nanofiber membrane can be a promising material for food packaging and as a potential wound dressing for skin regeneration.

Antibacterial efficacy of poly(hexamethylene biguanide) immobilized on chitosan/dye-modified nanofiber membranes.

This study aimed to develop a novel electrospun polyacrylonitrile (PAN) nanofiber membrane with the enhanced antibacterial property. The PAN nanofiber membrane was first subjected to alkaline hydrolysis treatment, and the treated membrane was subsequently grafted with chitosan (CS) to obtain a CS-modified nanofiber membrane (P-COOH-CS). The modified membrane was then coupled with different dye molecules to form P-COOH-CS-Dye membranes. Lastly, poly(hexamethylene biguanide) hydrochloride (PHMB) was immobilized on the modified membrane to produce P-COOH-CS-Dye-PHMB. Physical characterization studies were conducted on all the synthesized nanofiber membranes. The antibacterial efficacies of nanofiber membranes prepared under different synthesis conditions were evaluated systematically. Under the optimum synthesis conditions, P-COOH-CS-Dye-PHMB was highly effective in disinfecting a high concentration of Escherichia coli, with an antibacterial efficacy of approximately 100%. Additionally, the P-COOH-CS-Dye-PHMB exhibited an outstanding wash durability as its antibacterial efficacy was only reduced in the range of 5%-7% even after 5 repeated cycles of treatment. Overall, the experimental results of this study suggested that the P-COOH-CS-Dye-PHMB is a promising antibacterial nanofiber membrane that can be adopted in the food, pharmaceutical, and textile industries.

Egg white lysozyme purification by a stirred cell contactor equipped with a weak ion-exchange nanofiber membrane: Process development and scale-up.

A weak ion-exchange membrane (P-COOH) was synthesized by alkaline hydrolysis of a polyacrylonitrile nanofiber membrane prepared by electrospinning process. The P-COOH membrane was characterized for its physical properties and its application for purification of lysozyme from chicken egg white was investigated. The lysozyme adsorption efficiency of the P-COOH membrane operating in a stirred cell contactor (Millipore, Model 8010) was evaluated. The effects of key parameters such as the feed concentration, the rotating speed, the flow rate of feed and the operating pressure were studied. The results showed successful purification of lysozyme with a high recovery yield of 98% and a purification factor of 63 in a single step. The purification strategy was scaled-up to the higher feedstock loading volume of 32.7 and 70 mL using stirred cell contactors of Model 8050 and 8200, respectively. The scale-up processes achieved similar purification results, proving linear scalability of the purification technique adopted.

Removal of soluble microbial products and dyes using heavy metal wastes decorated on eggshell.

This work studied the potential of using eggshell (ES) (200-300 µm) waste as adsorbent for sequential removal of heavy metals, soluble microbial products, and dye wastes. In this study, among soluble microbial products, chicken egg white (CEW) proteins were selected as simulated contaminants. ES was applied to capture heavy metal ions (e.g., Cu2+ and Zn2+) and the formed eggshell metal (ES-M) complex was use to absorb soluble microbial products (e.g., soluble proteins), followed by subsequent removal of dyes from aqueous solutions using ES-M-CEW adsorbent. The experimental conditions for the adsorption of CEW proteins by ES-M include shaking rate, adsorption pH, isothermal and kinetic studies. The maximum protein adsorption by ES-Zn and ES-Cu were 175.67 and 153.65 mg/g, respectively. Optimal removal efficiencies of the ES-M-CEW particles for Acid Orange (AO7) and Toluidine blue (TBO) dyes were at pH 2 and 12, respectively, achieving performance of 75.38 and 114.18 mg/g, respectively. The removal of TBO dye by ES-M-CEW adsorbent was equilibrated at 5 min. The results showed that low cost and simple preparation of the modified ES particles are feasible for treating various wastewaters.

Purification of lysozyme from chicken egg white by high-density cation exchange adsorbents in stirred fluidized bed adsorption system.

Lysozyme from crude chicken egg white (CEW) feedstock was successfully purified using a stirred fluidized bed adsorption system ion exchange chromatography where STREAMLINE SP and SP-XL high density adsorbents were selected as the adsorption carrier. The thermodynamic and kinetic studies were carried out to understand the characteristics of lysozyme adsorption by adsorbents under various conditions, including adsorption pH, temperature, lysozyme concentration and salt concentrations. Results showed that SP and SP-XL adsorbents achieved optimum lysozyme adsorption at pH 9 with capacity of ~139.77 and ~251.26 mg/mL, respectively. The optimal conditions obtained from batch studies were directly employed to operate in SFBA process. For SP-XL adsorbent, the recovery yield and purification factor of lysozyme were 93.78% and ~40 folds, respectively. For SP adsorbent, lysozyme can be eluted ~100% with purification factor of ~26 folds. These two adsorbents are highly suitable for use in direct recovery of lysozyme from crude CEW.

Highly efficient dye removal and lysozyme purification using strong and weak cation-exchange nanofiber membranes.

Electrospinning technology was applied for the preparation of polyacrylonitrile (PAN) nanofiber membrane in this work. After hot pressing, alkaline hydrolysis and neutralization treatment, a weak acid cation exchange membrane (P-COOH) was prepared. By the covalent coupling reaction between the acidic membrane and aminomethane sulfonic acid (AMSA), a strong acidic nanofiber membrane (P-SO3H) was obtained. The surface morphology, chemical structure, and thermal stability of the prepared ion exchange membranes were analyzed via SEM, FTIR and TGA. Analytical results showed that the membranes were prepared successfully and thermally stable. The ion exchange membrane (IEX) was conducted with the newly designed membrane reactor, and different operating conditions affecting the adsorption efficiency of Toluidine Blue dye (TBO) were investigated by dynamic flow process. The results showed that dynamic binding capacity (DBC) of weak and strong IEX membranes for TBO dye was ~170 mg/g in a dynamic flow process. Simultaneously, the ion exchange membranes were also used for purifying lysozyme from chicken egg white (CEW). Results illustrated that the recovery yield and purification factor of lysozyme were 93.43% and 29.23 times (P-COOH); 90.72% and 36.22 times (P-SO3H), respectively. It was revealed that two type ion exchange membranes were very suitable as an adsorber for use in dye waste treatment and lysozyme purification process. P-SO3H strong ion-exchange membrane was more effective either removal of TBO dye or purification of lysozyme. The ion exchange membranes not only effectively purified lysozyme from CEW solution, but also effectively removed dye from wastewater.

Direct recovery of enhanced green fluorescent protein from unclarified Escherichia coli homogenate using ion exchange chromatography in stirred fluidized bed.

A stirred fluidized bed (SFB) ion exchange chromatography was successfully applied in the direct recovery of recombinant enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) from the unclarified Escherichia coli homogenate. Optimal conditions for both adsorption and elution processes were determined from the packed-bed adsorption systems conducted at a small scale using the clarified cell homogenate. The maximal adsorption capacity and dissociation constant for EGFP-adsorbent complex were found to be 6.3 mg/mL and 1.3 × 10-3 mg/mL, respectively. In an optimal elution of EGFP with 0.2 M of NaCl solution (pH 9) and at 200 cm/h, the recovery percent of the EGFP was approximately 93%. The performances of SFB chromatography for direct recovery of EGFP was also evaluated under different loading volumes (50-200 mL) of crude cell homogenate. The single-step purification of EGFP by SFB recorded in a high yield (95-98%) and a satisfactory purification factor (~3 folds) of EGFP from the cell homogenate at 200 rpm of rotating speed.

Batch and dynamic adsorption of lysozyme from chicken egg white on dye-affinity nanofiber membranes modified by ethylene diamine and chitosan.

Adsorption of lysozyme on the dye-affinity nanofiber membranes was investigated in batch and dynamic modes. The membrane matrix was made of electrospun polyacrylonitrile nanofibers that were grafted with ethylene diamine (EDA) and/or chitosan (CS) for the coupling of Reactive Blue 49 dye. The physicochemical properties of these dye-immobilized nanofiber membranes (P-EDA-Dye and P-CS-Dye) were characterized microscopically, spectroscopically and thermogravimetrically. The capacities of lysozyme adsorption by the dye-affinity nanofiber membranes were evaluated under various conditions, namely pH, dye immobilized density, and loading flow rate. The adsorption of lysozyme to the dye-affinity nanofiber membranes was well fitted by Langmuir isotherm and pseudo-second kinetic models. P-CS-Dye nanofiber membrane had a better performance in the dynamic adsorption of lysozyme from complex chicken egg white solution. It was observed that after five cycles of adsorption-desorption, the dye-affinity nanofiber membrane did not show a significant loss in its capacity for lysozyme adsorption. The robustness as well as high dynamic adsorption capability of P-CS-Dye nanofiber membrane are promising for the efficient recovery of lysozyme from complex feedstock via nanofiber membrane chromatography.

Effective purification of lysozyme from chicken egg white by tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane affinity nanofiber membrane.

Polyacrylonitrile nanofiber membrane functionalized with tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (P-Tris) was used in affinity membrane chromatography for lysozyme adsorption. The effects of pH and protein concentration on lysozyme adsorption were investigated. Based on Langmuir model, the adsorption capacity of P-Tris nanofiber membrane was estimated to be 345.83 mg/g. For the operation of dynamic membrane chromatography with three-layer P-Tris nanofiber membranes, the optimal operating conditions were at pH 9, 1.0 mL/min of feed flow rate, and 2 mg/mL of feed concentration. Chicken egg white (CEW) was applied as the crude feedstock of lysozyme in the optimized dynamic membrane chromatography. The percent recovery and purification factor of lysozyme obtained from the chromatography were 93.28% and 103.98 folds, respectively. Our findings demonstrated the effectiveness of P-Tris affinity nanofiber membrane for the recovery of lysozyme from complex CEW solution.

Antibacterial efficacy of chitosan- and poly(hexamethylene biguanide)-immobilized nanofiber membrane.

In this study, polyacrylonitrile (PAN) nanofiber membrane was prepared by an electrospinning technique. After alkaline hydrolysis, the ion-exchange nanofiber membrane (P-COOH) was grafted with chitosan molecules to form a chitosan-modified nanofiber membrane (P-COOH-CS). Poly(hexamethylene biguanide) (PHMB) was then covalently immobilized on P-COOH and P-COOH-CS to form P-COOH-PHMB and P-COOH-CS-PHMB, respectively. The nanofiber membranes were subjected to various surface analyses as well as to the evaluations of antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli. The optimal modification conditions for P-COOH-CS-PHMB were attained by water-soluble chitosan at 50 kDa of molecular weight, coupling pH at 7, and 0.05% (w/w) of PHMB. Within 10 min of treatment, the antibacterial rate was close to 100%. Under the similar conditions of antibacterial treatment, the P-COOH-CS-PHMB exhibited a better antibacterial efficacy than the P-COOH-PHMB. When the number of bacterial cells was increased by 2000 folds, both types of nanofiber membranes still maintained the antibacterial rate close to 100%. After five cycles of repeated antibacterial treatment, the antibacterial efficacy of P-COOH-PHMB was 96%, which was higher than that of P-COOH-CS-PHMB (83%). The experimental results revealed that the PHMB-modified nanofiber membranes can be suitably applied in water treatment such as water disinfection and biofouling control.

Removal of dye waste by weak cation-exchange nanofiber membrane immobilized with waste egg white proteins.

In this research, a protein nanofiber membrane (P-COOH-CEW) was developed to treat the dye waste. Initially, polyacrylonitrile nanofiber membrane (PAN) was prepared by electrospinning, followed by heat treatment, alkaline treatment, and neutralization to obtain weak cation exchange nanofiber membrane (P-COOH). The P-COOH membrane was chemically coated with chicken egg white (CEW) proteins to obtain a 3D structure of complex protein nanofiber membrane (P-COOH-CEW). The composite prepared was characterized with Fourier Transform Infrared analysis (FTIR), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Further, the composite was evaluated by investigating the removal of Toluidine Blue O (TBO) from aqueous solutions in batch conditions. Different operating parameters - coupling of CEW, shaking rate, initial pH, contact time, temperature, and dye concentration were studied. From the results, maximum removal capacity and equilibrium association constant was determined to be 546.24 mg/g and 10.18 mg/mg, respectively at pH 10 and 298 K. The experimental data were well fitted to pseudo-second order model. Furthermore, desorption studies revealed that the adsorbed TBO can be completely eluted by using 50% ethanol or 50% glycerol in 1 M NaCl solution. Additionally, the reuse of P-COOH-CEW membrane reported to have 97.32% of removal efficiency after five consecutive adsorption/desorption cycles.

Ovatodiolide suppresses nasopharyngeal cancer by targeting stem cell-like population, inducing apoptosis, inhibiting EMT and dysregulating JAK/STAT signaling pathway.

BACKGROUND: Treatment for metastatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is challenging. Till now, a truly effective chemotherapy regimen for NPC has not yet been identified. These clinical observations prompted us to investigate a potential drug as alternative option for treating. PURPOSE: This study evaluated the inhibitory effects of Ovatodiolide (Ova), on tumorigenic and cancer stem cell characteristics of NPC cells. METHODS: Two NPC cell lines (NPC-BM1 and NPC-BM2) were used to examine the anticancer effects of Ova and the molecular mechanism underlying these activities by using sulforhodamine B cytotoxicity assay, western blot, immunofluorescence, migration, colony and tumorsphere formation assays. RESULTS: Ova significantly inhibited the viability of BM1 and BM2 cells, downregulated Bcl-xL and Puma, and upregulated Bax/Bad expression levels. Ova dose-dependent suppressed migratory/invasive potential of NPC cells, and reduced ability to form colonies. Ova-induced apoptosis correlated with increased Bax/Bcl-xL ratio while NPC motility and colony formation inhibition were associated with reduced expression of p-FAK, p-PXN, F-actin, and Slug proteins and increased E-cadherin. Furthermore, ova inhibited NPC tumorsphere formation, associated with decreased SOX2, OCT4 and JAK-STAT signaling pathway. Ova also attenuated NPC stem cell tumorigenicity, inhibited tumor growth, and enhanced the sensitivity of NPC cells to cisplatin treatment, in vivo. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrated the anticancer efficacy of Ova in NPC and its potential as a putative inhibitor of JAK2 and STAT3, which are essential in tumorigenesis of NPC. Further development of Ova is encouraged.

CHM-1, a novel microtubule-destabilizing agent exhibits antitumor activity via inducing the expression of SIRT2 in human breast cancer cells.

Breast cancer is a major public health problem throughout the world. In this report, we investigated whether CHM-1, a novel synthetic antimitotic agent could be developed into a potent antitumor agent for treating human breast cancer. CHM-1 induced growth inhibition in MDA-MB-231, MDA-MB-453 and MCF-7 cells in a concentration-dependent manner. Importantly, CHM-1 is less toxic to normal breast (HBL-100) cells. CHM-1 interacted with tubulin, markedly inhibited tubulin polymerization, and disrupted microtubule organization. Proteins from control and CHM-1-treated animal tumor specimens were analyzed by two-dimensional electrophoresis and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. Our results indicated that CHM-1 increased the expression of SIRT2 protein, an NAD-dependent tubulin deacetylase. A prodrug strategy was also investigated to address the problem of low aqueous solubility and low bioavailability of the antitumor agent CHM-1. The water-soluble prodrug of CHM-1 (CHM-1-P) was synthesized. After oral and intravenous administration, CHM-1-P induced a dose-dependent inhibition of tumor growth. The aforementioned excellent anti-tumor activity profiles of CHM-1 and its prodrug CHM-1-P, suggests that CHM-1-P deserves to further develop as a clinical trial candidate for treating human breast carcinoma.

A comparative proteomic study of secretomes in kaempferitrin-treated CTX TNA2 astrocytic cells.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Kaempferitrin is extracted in significantly high quantities from the leaves of Cinnamomum osmophloeum (C.O) and Bauhinia forficata, and are used as an antidiabetic herbal remedy in China and Brazil. Commercial product using dry Cinnamomum osmophloeum leaves has been sold locally in Taiwan. Oral administration of kaempferitrin reduced blood sugar in diabetic rats. AIM OF THE STUDY: Though previously demonstrated to activate the classical insulin signaling pathways, a mechanism for kaempferitrin is still not fully understood. Also, studies on kaempferitrin on immune related cells have been inconclusive, and people consuming extract containing kaempferitrin often happen to be at high risk of diabetes and neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, for kaempferitrin to be used every day, a comprehensive study is needed. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Astrocytic cell line was used as a model to test the differentially regulated secretomes, to test kaempferitrin effect on CNS glia, on pro-inflammatory cytokines, and to test how different the mechanism of kaempferitrin is from that of insulin. CTX TNA2 astrocytic cells were differentially treated with and without 10 µM kaempferitrin for 24 h, and the conditioned medium was collected. For the proteomic study, protein in conditioned medium was trypsin digested, and resulting peptides in kaempferitrin/non-treated sample pair were differentially dimethyl labeled. The labeled peptides were further fractionated by StageTip-based strong-exchange method before LC-MS/MS analyses. Levels of interesting proteins were verified using Western or Eliza. C.O. leaf crude extract treated samples were included for a comparison of effects of purified kaempferitrin vs. kaempferitrin containing crude extract. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Data were obtained via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD002814. It was found that no pro-inflammatory cytokines or inhibitory ECM were elevated upon treatment of kaempferitrin or a crude extract of C.O. leaves. This suggests that prolonged use of kaempferitrin containing herbs may not increase pro-inflammatory reaction. LDL-R trafficking between the cell membrane and the extracellular niche was regulated by kaempferitrin toward reduced secretion. Our proteomic study also demonstrated that molecules related to plasma membrane recycling were regulated by kaempferitrin. Our discoveries provide evidence that link kaempferitrin regulation for LDL-R and membrane recycling to the blood lipid regulation by the C.O. leaves extract. However, these proteins were differently regulated when cells were treated with crude extract. This demonstrates that the molecular interactions within crude extract of herbs are complex and may not act similar to the compound purified from the crude extract.

Destruxin B Isolated from Entomopathogenic Fungus Metarhizium anisopliae Induces Apoptosis via a Bcl-2 Family-Dependent Mitochondrial Pathway in Human Nonsmall Cell Lung Cancer Cells.

Destruxin B, isolated from entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae, is one of the cyclodepsipeptides with insecticidal and anticancer activities. In this study, destruxin B was extracted and purified by ion-exchange chromatography, silica gel chromatography, and semipreparative high-performance liquid chromatography. The potential anticancer effects and molecular mechanisms of destruxin B in human nonsmall cell lung cancer cell lines were characterized. Our results showed that destruxin B induced apoptotic cell death in A549 cells. This event was accompanied by the activation of caspase-2, -3, and -9. Moreover, destruxin B increased the expression level of proapoptotic molecule, PUMA, while decreased antiapoptotic molecule Mcl-1. Additionally, the translocation of Bax from cytosol to mitochondrial membrane was observed upon destruxin B treatment. Knockdown of Bax by shRNA effectively attenuated destruxin-B-triggered apoptosis in A549 cells. Interestingly, similar toxic effects and underlying mechanisms including caspase activation, upregulation of PUMA, and downregulation of Mcl-1 were also observed in a p53-null lung cancer H1299 cell line upon destruxin B treatment. Taken together, our findings suggest that destruxin-B-induced apoptosis in human nonsmall cell lung cancer cells is via a Bcl-2 family-dependent mitochondrial pathway.

Development and applications of destruxins: a review.

The insecticidal and phytotoxic activities of destruxins (dtxs) have been well studied. The cyclodepsipeptides, which are dtxs mainly isolated from the fungus Metarhizium anisopliae and other fungi, have been well characterized in vitro and in vivo. A succession of important function, such as antitumoral, antiviral, insecticidal, cytotoxic, immunosuppressant, phytotoxic, and antiproliferative effects have been observed. To date, 39 dtxs derivatives have been identified. Dtxs possess a variety of biological activities, including acting as virulence factors for specific insects, a V-ATPase inhibitor that provides a basis for the development of new drug to against osteoporosis, cancer, or biological control agents, etc. Here, we focus on some of the research progress made on understanding dtxs during the last decade, introduce some of the newly identified dtx members, especially from M. anisopliae, and give an overview of the applications of dtxs. Using the dtxs to learn about and moderate biological events has advanced significantly during the past year. We believe that several ongoing dtx application fields may benefit from the reviewed information herein.

Bioactivities and sensory evaluation of Pu-erh teas made from three tea leaves in an improved pile fermentation process.

Two commercial Pu-erh teas, 15-year-old Ta-Huang-In and 25-year-old Ta-Hon-In, were used for screening some species of fungi, yeasts, and bacteria, and six of them were isolated and identified as Actinoplanes aurantiacus, Actinoplanes pallidoaurantiacus, Actinoplanes purpeobrunneus, Streptomyces bacillaris, Streptomyces cavourensis subsp. cavourensis, and Streptomyces cinereus. They were selected for inoculated into the tea leaves (Yun Nan from China, TTES-12 and C. S. Oolong from Taiwan) and fermented for 180 days. The total polyphenols and GABA content, and DPPH radical scavenging effects were determined to examine the tea infusion quality. The samples inoculated with S. cinereus had the highest total polyphenols content and maximum capacity to scavenge DPPH radicals; the highest GABA content was obtained while the sample inoculated with S. bacillaris. Further comparison of these samples with two commercial Pu-erh teas of different ages (Ta-Huang-In, 15-year storage and Ta-Hon-In, 25-year storage) showed that DPPH radical scavenging activity and GABA content of S. bacillaris and S. cinereus fermented tea leaf were higher than these two commercial teas. Sensory evaluation also demonstrated that the taste, flavor, and overall acceptance did not had significant differences between the experimental tea leaves and commercial samples. The present studies revealed that the fresh tea leaves inoculated with the suitable microbes in short period of time will possess a high-quality tea infusion as long-term storage Pu-erh tea.