Structural basis of lipid-droplet localization of 17-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 13.

Hydroxysteroid 17-beta-dehydrogenase 13 (HSD17B13) is a hepatic lipid droplet-associated enzyme that is upregulated in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Recently, there have been several reports that predicted loss of function variants in HSD17B13 protect against the progression of steatosis to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis with fibrosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Here we report crystal structures of full length HSD17B13 in complex with its NAD+ cofactor, and with lipid/detergent molecules and small molecule inhibitors from two distinct series in the ligand binding pocket. These structures provide insights into a mechanism for lipid droplet-associated proteins anchoring to membranes as well as a basis for HSD17B13 variants disrupting function. Two series of inhibitors interact with the active site residues and the bound cofactor similarly, yet they occupy different paths leading to the active site. These structures provide ideas for structure-based design of inhibitors that may be used in the treatment of liver disease.

Small molecule branched-chain ketoacid dehydrogenase kinase (BDK) inhibitors with opposing effects on BDK protein levels.

Branched chain amino acid (BCAA) catabolic impairments have been implicated in several diseases. Branched chain ketoacid dehydrogenase (BCKDH) controls the rate limiting step in BCAA degradation, the activity of which is inhibited by BCKDH kinase (BDK)-mediated phosphorylation. Screening efforts to discover BDK inhibitors led to identification of thiophene PF-07208254, which improved cardiometabolic endpoints in mice. Structure-activity relationship studies led to identification of a thiazole series of BDK inhibitors; however, these inhibitors did not improve metabolism in mice upon chronic administration. While the thiophenes demonstrated sustained branched chain ketoacid (BCKA) lowering and reduced BDK protein levels, the thiazoles increased BCKAs and BDK protein levels. Thiazoles increased BDK proximity to BCKDH-E2, whereas thiophenes reduced BDK proximity to BCKDH-E2, which may promote BDK degradation. Thus, we describe two BDK inhibitor series that possess differing attributes regarding BDK degradation or stabilization and provide a mechanistic understanding of the desirable features of an effective BDK inhibitor.

A covalent BTK ternary complex compatible with targeted protein degradation.

Targeted protein degradation using heterobifunctional chimeras holds the potential to expand target space and grow the druggable proteome. Most acutely, this provides an opportunity to target proteins that lack enzymatic activity or have otherwise proven intractable to small molecule inhibition. Limiting this potential, however, is the remaining need to develop a ligand for the target of interest. While a number of challenging proteins have been successfully targeted by covalent ligands, unless this modification affects form or function, it may lack the ability to drive a biological response. Bridging covalent ligand discovery with chimeric degrader design has emerged as a potential mechanism to advance both fields. In this work, we employ a set of biochemical and cellular tools to deconvolute the role of covalent modification in targeted protein degradation using Bruton's tyrosine kinase. Our results reveal that covalent target modification is fundamentally compatible with the protein degrader mechanism of action.

Structural studies identify angiotensin II receptor blocker-like compounds as branched-chain ketoacid dehydrogenase kinase inhibitors.

The mammalian mitochondrial branched-chain ketoacid dehydrogenase (BCKD) complex is a multienzyme complex involved in the catabolism of branched-chain amino acids. BCKD is regulated by the BCKD kinase, or BCKDK, which binds to the E2 subunit of BCKD, phosphorylates its E1 subunit, and inhibits enzymatic activity. Inhibition of the BCKD complex results in increased levels of branched-chain amino acids and branched-chain ketoacids, and this buildup has been associated with heart failure, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. To find BCKDK inhibitors for potential treatment of these diseases, we performed both NMR and virtual fragment screening and identified tetrazole-bearing fragments that bind BCKDK at multiple sites. Through structure-based virtual screening expanding from these fragments, the angiotensin receptor blocker class antihypertension drugs and angiotensin receptor blocker-like compounds were discovered to be potent BCKDK inhibitors, suggesting potential new avenues for heart failure treatment combining BCKDK inhibition and antihypertension.

Structural Insights into the Interleukin-17 Family Cytokines and Their Receptors.

The IL-17 family in humans consists of six distinct cytokines (IL-17A-F) that can interact with five IL-17 receptors (IL-17RA-E). The interaction between these cytokines and their receptors are critical in mediating host defenses while also making major contributions to inflammatory and autoimmune responses as demonstrated through both in vitro and in vivo experiments as well as human clinical trials. Inhibition of the IL-17A/IL-17RA interaction by monoclonal antibodies has also displayed remarkable efficacies in clinical trials against psoriasis and other autoimmune diseases. Recently, we and others reported the identification and characterization of both small-molecule and peptide IL-17A antagonists. These non-antibody IL-17A antagonists can effectively and selectively disrupt the IL-17A/IL-17RA complex and may provide alternative modalities to treat IL-17-related autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. This chapter summarizes the reported crystal structures of the IL-17 cytokines, their complexes with IL-17RA, and their complexes with both monoclonal antibodies as well as small-molecule and peptide antagonists.

2-Aminopyridine-Based Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Kinase Kinase Kinase 4 (MAP4K4) Inhibitors: Assessment of Mechanism-Based Safety.

Studies have linked the serine-threonine kinase MAP4K4 to the regulation of a number of biological processes and/or diseases, including diabetes, cancer, inflammation, and angiogenesis. With a majority of the members of our lead series (e.g., 1) suffering from time-dependent inhibition (TDI) of CYP3A4, we sought design avenues that would eliminate this risk. One such approach arose from the observation that carboxylic acid-based intermediates employed in our discovery efforts retained high MAP4K4 inhibitory potency and were devoid of the TDI risk. The medicinal chemistry effort that led to the discovery of this central nervous system-impaired inhibitor together with its preclinical safety profile is described.

An Intracellular Allosteric Modulator Binding Pocket in SK2 Ion Channels Is Shared by Multiple Chemotypes.

Small conductance potassium (SK) ion channels define neuronal firing rates by conducting the after-hyperpolarization current. They are key targets in developing therapies where neuronal firing rates are dysfunctional, such as in epilepsy, Parkinson's, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Here, we characterize a binding pocket situated at the intracellular interface of SK2 and calmodulin, which we show to be shared by multiple small-molecule chemotypes. Crystallization of this complex revealed that riluzole (approved for ALS) and an analog of the anti-ataxic agent (4-chloro-phenyl)-[2-(3,5-dimethyl-pyrazol-1-yl)-pyrimidin-4-yl]-amine (CyPPA) bind to and allosterically modulate via this site. Solution-state nuclear magnetic resonance demonstrates that riluzole, NS309, and CyPPA analogs bind at this bipartite pocket. We demonstrate, by patch-clamp electrophysiology, that both classes of ligand interact with overlapping but distinct residues within this pocket. These data define a clinically important site, laying the foundations for further studies of the mechanism of action of riluzole and related molecules.

Lysosomal integral membrane protein-2 as a phospholipid receptor revealed by biophysical and cellular studies.

Lysosomal integral membrane protein-2 (LIMP-2/SCARB2) contributes to endosomal and lysosomal function. LIMP-2 deficiency is associated with neurological abnormalities and kidney failure and, as an acid glucocerebrosidase receptor, impacts Gaucher and Parkinson's diseases. Here we report a crystal structure of a LIMP-2 luminal domain dimer with bound cholesterol and phosphatidylcholine. Binding of these lipids alters LIMP-2 from functioning as a glucocerebrosidase-binding monomer toward a dimeric state that preferentially binds anionic phosphatidylserine over neutral phosphatidylcholine. In cellular uptake experiments, LIMP-2 facilitates transport of phospholipids into murine fibroblasts, with a strong substrate preference for phosphatidylserine. Taken together, these biophysical and cellular studies define the structural basis and functional importance of a form of LIMP-2 for lipid trafficking. We propose a model whereby switching between monomeric and dimeric forms allows LIMP-2 to engage distinct binding partners, a mechanism that may be shared by SR-BI and CD36, scavenger receptor proteins highly homologous to LIMP-2.

Identification and Profiling of a Selective and Brain Penetrant Radioligand for in Vivo Target Occupancy Measurement of Casein Kinase 1 (CK1) Inhibitors.

To enable the clinical development of our CNS casein kinase 1 delta/epsilon (CK1δ/ε) inhibitor project, we investigated the possibility of developing a CNS positron emission tomography (PET) radioligand. For this effort, we focused our design and synthesis efforts on the initial CK1δ/ε inhibitor HTS hits with the goal of identifying a compound that would fulfill a set of recommended PET ligand criteria. We identified [3H]PF-5236216 (9) as a tool ligand that meets most of the key CNS PET attributes including high CNS MPO PET desirability score and kinase selectivity, CNS penetration, and low nonspecific binding. We further used [3H]-9 to determine the binding affinity for PF-670462, a literature CK1δ/ε inhibitor tool compound. Lastly, [3H]-9 was used to measure in vivo target occupancy (TO) of PF-670462 in mouse and correlated TO with CK1δ/ε in vivo pharmacology (circadian rhythm modulation).

Structure-Based Design of Highly Selective Inhibitors of the CREB Binding Protein Bromodomain.

Chemical probes are required for preclinical target validation to interrogate novel biological targets and pathways. Selective inhibitors of the CREB binding protein (CREBBP)/EP300 bromodomains are required to facilitate the elucidation of biology associated with these important epigenetic targets. Medicinal chemistry optimization that paid particular attention to physiochemical properties delivered chemical probes with desirable potency, selectivity, and permeability attributes. An important feature of the optimization process was the successful application of rational structure-based drug design to address bromodomain selectivity issues (particularly against the structurally related BRD4 protein).

Design of Potent mRNA Decapping Scavenger Enzyme (DcpS) Inhibitors with Improved Physicochemical Properties To Investigate the Mechanism of Therapeutic Benefit in Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA).

The C-5 substituted 2,4-diaminoquinazoline RG3039 (compound 1), a member of a chemical series that was identified and optimized using an SMN2 promoter screen, prolongs survival and improves motor function in a mouse model of spinal muscular atrophy (SMA). It is a potent inhibitor of the mRNA decapping scavenger enzyme (DcpS), but the mechanism whereby DcpS inhibition leads to therapeutic benefit is unclear. Compound 1 is a dibasic lipophilic molecule that is predicted to accumulate in lysosomes. To understand if the in vivo efficacy is due to DcpS inhibition or other effects resulting from the physicochemical properties of the chemotype, we undertook structure based molecular design to identify DcpS inhibitors with improved physicochemical properties. Herein we describe the design, synthesis, and in vitro pharmacological characterization of these DcpS inhibitors along with the in vivo mouse CNS PK profile of PF-DcpSi (compound 24), one of the analogs found to be efficacious in SMA mouse model.

Efficient Liver Targeting by Polyvalent Display of a Compact Ligand for the Asialoglycoprotein Receptor.

A compact and stable bicyclic bridged ketal was developed as a ligand for the asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR). This compound showed excellent ligand efficiency, and the molecular details of binding were revealed by the first X-ray crystal structures of ligand-bound ASGPR. This analogue was used to make potent di- and trivalent binders of ASGPR. Extensive characterization of the function of these compounds showed rapid ASGPR-dependent cellular uptake in vitro and high levels of liver/plasma selectivity in vivo. Assessment of the biodistribution in rodents of a prototypical Alexa647-labeled trivalent conjugate showed selective hepatocyte targeting with no detectable distribution in nonparenchymal cells. This molecule also exhibited increased ASGPR-directed hepatocellular uptake and prolonged retention compared to a similar GalNAc derived trimer conjugate. Selective release in the liver of a passively permeable small-molecule cargo was achieved by retro-Diels-Alder cleavage of an oxanorbornadiene linkage, presumably upon encountering intracellular thiol. Therefore, the multicomponent construct described here represents a highly efficient delivery vehicle to hepatocytes.

Binding site elucidation and structure guided design of macrocyclic IL-17A antagonists.

Interleukin-17A (IL-17A) is a principal driver of multiple inflammatory and immune disorders. Antibodies that neutralize IL-17A or its receptor (IL-17RA) deliver efficacy in autoimmune diseases, but no small-molecule IL-17A antagonists have yet progressed into clinical trials. Investigation of a series of linear peptide ligands to IL-17A and characterization of their binding site has enabled the design of novel macrocyclic ligands that are themselves potent IL-17A antagonists.

Inhibiting complex IL-17A and IL-17RA interactions with a linear peptide.

IL-17A is a pro-inflammatory cytokine that has been implicated in autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. Monoclonal antibodies inhibiting IL-17A signaling have demonstrated remarkable efficacy, but an oral therapy is still lacking. A high affinity IL-17A peptide antagonist (HAP) of 15 residues was identified through phage-display screening followed by saturation mutagenesis optimization and amino acid substitutions. HAP binds specifically to IL-17A and inhibits the interaction of the cytokine with its receptor, IL-17RA. Tested in primary human cells, HAP blocked the production of multiple inflammatory cytokines. Crystal structure studies revealed that two HAP molecules bind to one IL-17A dimer symmetrically. The N-terminal portions of HAP form a ß-strand that inserts between two IL-17A monomers while the C-terminal section forms an α helix that directly blocks IL-17RA from binding to the same region of IL-17A. This mode of inhibition suggests opportunities for developing peptide antagonists against this challenging target.

Discovery of an in Vivo Tool to Establish Proof-of-Concept for MAP4K4-Based Antidiabetic Treatment.

Recent studies in adipose tissue, pancreas, muscle, and macrophages suggest that MAP4K4, a serine/threonine protein kinase may be a viable target for antidiabetic drugs. As part of the evaluation of MAP4K4 as a novel antidiabetic target, a tool compound, 16 (PF-6260933) and a lead 17 possessing excellent kinome selectivity and suitable properties were delivered to establish proof of concept in vivo. The medicinal chemistry effort that led to the discovery of these lead compounds is described herein together with in vivo pharmacokinetic properties and activity in a model of insulin resistance.

Transcriptional Profiling of a Selective CREB Binding Protein Bromodomain Inhibitor Highlights Therapeutic Opportunities.

Bromodomains are involved in transcriptional regulation through the recognition of acetyl lysine modifications on diverse proteins. Selective pharmacological modulators of bromodomains are lacking, although the largely hydrophobic nature of the pocket makes these modules attractive targets for small-molecule inhibitors. This work describes the structure-based design of a highly selective inhibitor of the CREB binding protein (CBP) bromodomain and its use in cell-based transcriptional profiling experiments. The inhibitor downregulated a number of inflammatory genes in macrophages that were not affected by a selective BET bromodomain inhibitor. In addition, the CBP bromodomain inhibitor modulated the mRNA level of the regulator of G-protein signaling 4 (RGS4) gene in neurons, suggesting a potential therapeutic opportunity for CBP inhibitors in the treatment of neurological disorders.

Rational targeting of active-site tyrosine residues using sulfonyl fluoride probes.

This work describes the first rational targeting of tyrosine residues in a protein binding site by small-molecule covalent probes. Specific tyrosine residues in the active site of the mRNA-decapping scavenger enzyme DcpS were modified using reactive sulfonyl fluoride covalent inhibitors. Structure-based molecular design was used to create an alkyne-tagged probe bearing the sulfonyl fluoride warhead, thus enabling the efficient capture of the protein from a complex proteome. Use of the probe in competition experiments with a diaminoquinazoline DcpS inhibitor permitted the quantification of intracellular target occupancy. As a result, diaminoquinazoline upregulators of survival motor neuron protein that are used for the treatment of spinal muscular atrophy were confirmed as inhibitors of DcpS in human primary cells. This work illustrates the utility of sulfonyl fluoride probes designed to react with specific tyrosine residues of a protein and augments the chemical biology toolkit by these probes uses in target validation and molecular pharmacology.

Discovery and structural characterization of an allosteric inhibitor of bacterial cis-prenyltransferase.

Undecaprenyl pyrophosphate synthase (UPPs) is an essential enzyme in a key bacterial cell wall synthesis pathway. It catalyzes the consecutive condensations of isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) groups on to a trans-farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP) to produce a C55 isoprenoid, undecaprenyl pyrophosphate (UPP). Here we report the discovery and co-crystal structures of a drug-like UPPs inhibitor in complex with Streptococcus pneumoniae UPPs, with and without substrate FPP, at resolutions of 2.2 and 2.1 Å, respectively. The UPPs inhibitor has a low molecular weight (355 Da), but displays potent inhibition of UPP synthesis in vitro (IC50 50 nM) that translates into excellent whole cell antimicrobial activity against pathogenic strains of Streptococcal species (MIC90 0.4 µg mL(-1) ). Interestingly, the inhibitor does not compete with the substrates but rather binds at a site adjacent to the FPP binding site and interacts with the tail of the substrate. Based on the structures, an allosteric inhibition mechanism of UPPs is proposed for this inhibitor. This inhibition mechanism is supported by biochemical and biophysical experiments, and provides a basis for the development of novel antibiotics targeting Streptococcus pneumoniae.

Casein kinase 1δ/ε inhibitor PF-5006739 attenuates opioid drug-seeking behavior.

Casein kinase 1 delta (CK1δ) and casein kinase 1 epsilon (CK1ε) inhibitors are potential therapeutic agents for a range of psychiatric disorders. The feasibility of developing a CNS kinase inhibitor has been limited by an inability to identify safe brain-penetrant compounds with high kinome selectivity. Guided by structure-based drug design, potent and selective CK1δ/ε inhibitors have now been identified that address this gap, through the design and synthesis of novel 4-[4-(4-fluorophenyl)-1-(piperidin-4-yl)-1H-imidazol-5-yl]pyrimidin-2-amine derivatives. PF-5006739 (6) possesses a desirable profile, with low nanomolar in vitro potency for CK1δ/ε (IC50 = 3.9 and 17.0 nM, respectively) and high kinome selectivity. In vivo, 6 demonstrated robust centrally mediated circadian rhythm phase-delaying effects in both nocturnal and diurnal animal models. Further, 6 dose-dependently attenuated opioid drug-seeking behavior in a rodent operant reinstatement model in animals trained to self-administer fentanyl. Collectively, our data supports further development of 6 as a promising candidate to test the hypothesis of CK1δ/ε inhibition in treating multiple indications in the clinic.