[The decline of fertility: the end of the African exception]. / Baisse de la fecondite: la fin de l'exception africaine.

PIP: The results of recent fertility surveys prove that fertility decline (especially in urban areas) is occurring in more and more sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries. The countries first identified in the 1986-1988 Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) as experiencing fertility decline were Botswana, Kenya, and Zimbabwe. Countries recently added to the list are Ghana, Rwanda, and Senegal. The increase in the marriage age, the increase in contraceptive use for birth spacing, a decline in infant mortality, an increase in school attendance among girls, and changes in cultural norms and family relationships contribute greatly to the fertility decline. 12 countries had, at the time of the DHS, lower fertility and 7 countries had a higher fertility than the lowest fertility rate projected by the UN in 1984 for 1990-1995. SSA country ministers have set a goal of 2% for the population growth rate in 2010 and a contraceptive use rate of 20% in 2000 and 40% in 2010. The conference in Cairo estimated that developing countries must assume 66% of the financial costs for family planning programs. Yet, the economic crisis has increased two fold and some countries are experiencing dramatic political crises. How can contraception be distributed properly when health services are weak? With civil servants and officials not having been paid for months, how can the government apply a policy? Family planning programs in many SSA countries have many problems: insufficient information distribution, bad quality relationships between the client and provider, no choice of methods, no respect for the privacy of clients, and difficulties with access. Until recently, programs targeted mainly married women who had their husband's consent. They need to address youth, men, and women not in a union. The quality of family planning programs and the pursuit of efforts in health and schooling will determine the speed of fertility decline.^ieng

[Premature fertility in Sub-Saharan Africa]. / La fecondite precoce en Afrique Sub-Saharienne.

PIP: Results of research and intervention programs have convinced a majority of African decision makers of the desirability of reducing the number of births to very young mothers. But many families, especially in rural areas, continue to value early marriage and childbearing. In Niger, for example, the 1992 Demographic and Health Survey indicated that 47% of women currently aged 20-24 years had entered a union before the age of 15 and 87% by the age of 18. 53% had children before they reached 18. Early pregnancy within marriage is seldom regarded as a problem, and is often welcomed by the girl as a proof of fecundity. Attitudes toward premarital pregnancy, on the other hand, depend greatly on the social context. In Islamic areas, where all premarital sexual relations are frowned upon, families favor very early marriage as a means of preventing extramarital pregnancy. In groups undergoing transition to modern norms, pregnancy is viewed as a problem when it interrupts the mother's school attendance, and mothers are subjected to stigmatizing and moralistic sanctions. A more objective approach is to consider the social and health implications of early pregnancy rather than viewing it as the transgression of a norm. Health studies have clearly demonstrated the dangers of pregnancy for adolescents who have not achieved their full growth and the risks of illegal abortion. Motherhood is a great handicap to training and employment of young girls. Family planning programs have made avoidance of early pregnancy a priority. The Demographic and Health Surveys and other studies over the past fifteen years have greatly increased knowledge of adolescent fertility and of entry into adult life including marriage, but some confusion persists regarding the concept of adolescent fertility. Statistical data should distinguish between very young mothers and those over about 18 years, when most have reached physiological maturity. The marital status of the young mother should also be taken into account. Most African countries with data available from more than one survey appear to have experienced a trend toward decline in the number of very early marriages and pregnancies. Such declines as have occurred are probably the result of urbanization and school attendance rather than any specific policy measure. Programs targeted to adolescents should distinguish between the risks of early pregnancy and of premarital fertility. Increased attention should be directed to rural women who marry and have children at very young ages.^ieng

[African families facing a crisis]. / Les familles africaines face a la crise.

PIP: The key role that the family plays in many different aspects of life in Africa is examined. Three main spheres of influence are identified: demographic aspects, economic aspects, and social control. In the demographic area, the author notes that the family influences marriage practices, family size desires, child health, and migration decisions. (SUMMARY IN ENG)^ieng

[Youth in Africa: demographic and social implications]. / Les jeunes en Afrique: enjeux demographiques, enjeux sociaux.

"Using age-specific population projections for the period 1950-2025, the article examines the demographic and social implications of the importance of young age groups in Africa. School, employment and migration are of particular importance in the present context of political and economic crises affecting the continent." (SUMMARY IN ENG AND SPA)

[Families in crisis and population policies in Sub-Saharan Africa]. / Familles dans la crise et politiques de population en Afrique subsaharienne.

PIP: During the 3 decades since independence, most sub-Saharan African countries have experienced accelerated demographic growth and increased migration from rural to urban areas. The 2 factors have considerably increased the costs of raising children, who have become more numerous and acquired new needs. In rural areas, families continue to fill much of their children's need for health care and employment. The declining ability of governments beset by economic crises and structural adjustment programs to do so has led some observers to predict that a new demand for smaller families and thus family planning will ensue. But in order for the declarations of intention made to foreign donors with increasing frequency by African governments to lead to significant fertility modifications, a combination of great political will, agreement of families with the new fertility objectives, and accessible family planning infrastructure would be required. Changes of this magnitude are at present difficult to visualize. Most African governments since the 1984 World Population Conference have stated their support of policies to slow demographic growth, but their true attitudes are often ambivalent. Many family planning programs receive only timid official help despite apparent encouragement. Authorities of some small countries concerned about the political implications of population size may hesitate to support family planning, and in all of Africa the desire to limit family size is contrary to deeply held social values. African family planning programs confront both political reticence and the fact that most Africans still consider a large family beneficial, not just through blind adherence to tradition but because for the 70% who support themselves in agriculture a large labor force is essential. Children provide security for the old and infirm. For much of the population, the conditions justifying high fertility in the past--high mortality rates and dependence of production on the available labor force--have changed too little to have caused profound modifications in family size preferences. Fertility surveys in sub-Saharan Africa show that family size desires remain high in most countries. In urban areas, demand for contraception is beginning to appear, but much of it is destined to replace traditional means of spacing that are falling into decline. The obvious potential demand for services from women at the beginning of their reproductive lives and from women lacking permission of their husbands is discouraged by most African family planning programs. Social progress and coercion appear to have been the 2 principal routes to fertility transition in the developing world. Social progress requires improved health and education, goals made more distant by structural adjustment programs. Diminished social investment in sub-Saharan countries appears much more likely to result in increased fertility than in smaller family sizes.^ieng

[The activities of the Demographic Research Unit of the University of Benin]. / Les activites de l'Unite de Recherche Demographique de l'Universite du Benin

PIP: The Demographic Research Unit of the University of Benin was created in 1975, to contribute to a better knowledge of population in Togo and Africa. It now has 5 researchers, good administrative support, and a team of trained interviewers. The unit publishes textbooks and gives demography training to teachers (in primary and secondary schools) and to students (in Togo as well as West Africa), creating knowledgeable interlocuters in various sectors of society; integrates student these into its own researchs, and contributs to new vocational research. Its Documentation Center collects, processes, and circulates information on population and development (2300 books and pamphlets), computerizes information on Togolese demographic documents, and publishes reports on the unit's research in 2 publications: Togolese Studies on Population" (10 issues), and "Togolese Population." The unit is conducting research on 1) fertility and family in Togo and black Africa: in progress is a 4 year study on "the coming of the 1st child in Lome sample size=2500 women), and a study on teenagers' fertility; 2) population and aspects of economic development in Togo: completed in 1985 was a study on the utilization of demographic data for plans, and a study, in 2 rural areas (N=1000), of the relation between high birth rate and migration to the cities; 3) spatial redistribution and migration movements in Togo: in progress is a study of the results of the 1981 census, and surveys in 6 areas highly concerned by migration; 4) mortality and morbidity: studies on life expectancy in 1970 (men 40.2 years, women 43.), on infant death in Lome (1980-1982), of pediatric consultations of to 5 years children in several hospitals; 5) prospects for population: a population of 4,836,000 is expected in 2006 if there is a fast decrease in birth-rate, and of 6,214,000 with a slow increase.^ieng

[Fertility in black Africa]. / La fecondite en Afrique noire.

PIP: The number of children per woman is between 6 and 7 children in Black Africa. Infertility and poor fertility existing in certain regions of Africa only appear in results concerning central Africa. 6-10% of births occur in women between the ages of 40 and 50. It must be noted that the goal of the majority of societies in Black Africa is to have numerous descendants. Factors of fertility in Africa examined are: precocious marriage, a long period of exposure to the risk of pregnancy, birth spacing and pathological infertility. The paper also discusses modern contraception and birth control, the improvement of sanitation conditions as part of the battle against infertility and infant mortality, combating infertility, decreasing infant mortality and governmental attitudes toward fertility control. Despite the efforts of several private and governmental agencies to promote family planning, progress in Africa has been modest. In the majority of Black African countries, women do not have access to contraception. In rural areas, the absence of an administrative infrastructure prevents diffusion of information and access to contraception. Improving general health conditions has 2 consequences on fertility: it reduces infertility due to diseases that cause sterility and it reduces infant mortality which affects birth intervals. So far birth control has only been successful among the very educated women. However, a great potential for more users exists.^ieng