Current Views about the Inflammatory Damage Triggered by Bacterial Superantigens and Experimental Attempts to Neutralize Superantigen-Mediated Toxic Effects with Natural and Biological Products.

Superantigens, i.e., staphylococcal enterotoxins and toxic shock syndrome toxin-1, interact with T cells in a different manner in comparison to conventional antigens. In fact, they activate a larger contingent of T lymphocytes, binding outside the peptide-binding groove of the major histocompatibility complex class II. Involvement of many T cells by superantigens leads to a massive release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-1, IL-2, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interferon-gamma. Such a storm of mediators has been shown to account for tissue damage, multiorgan failure and shock. Besides conventional drugs and biotherapeutics, experiments with natural and biological products have been undertaken to attenuate the toxic effects exerted by superantigens. In this review, emphasis will be placed on polyphenols, probiotics, beta-glucans and antimicrobial peptides. In fact, these substances share a common functional denominator, since they skew the immune response toward an anti-inflammatory profile, thus mitigating the cytokine wave evoked by superantigens. However, clinical applications of these products are still scarce, and more trials are needed to validate their usefulness in humans.

Facial masks vestibulitis: the risk of mismanagement in the COVID-19 pandemic.

The COVID-19 pandemic has forced the global population to adopt several public health measures, including social distancing, environmental disinfection and use of personal protective equipment (PPE), which are still widely recommended although several vaccines are currently available. Dermatological and allergological diseases related to the extended use of the PPEs represent an emerging problem amidst the pandemic. In particular, there are increasing reports of skin damage, occupational dermatoses, Irritant Contact Dermatitis (ICD) and allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) related to surgical facemasks and N95. We report the case of a superinfected ICD of the narinal region complicated in nasal vestibulitis, characterized by purulent secretions, narinal edema and nasal obstruction, with the aim of highlighting that even the incorrect use of protective against Covid-19 transmission can cause the onset of severe diseases.

Eosinophilic lingual tonsillitis induced by sublingual immunotherapy: A case series.

The new observation of eosinophilic lingual tonsillitis as a possible adverse reaction to sublingual immunotherapy is likely to stimulate new investigations aimed at improving the understanding of the mechanisms of biodistribution of extracts placed at the sublingual level.

The Human Respiratory System and its Microbiome at a Glimpse.

The recent COVID-19 pandemic promoted efforts to better understand the organization of the respiratory microbiome and its evolution from birth to adulthood and how it interacts with external pathogens and the host immune system. This review aims to deepen understanding of the essential physiological functions of the resident microbiome of the respiratory system on human health and diseases. First, the general characteristics of the normal microbiota in the different anatomical sites of the airways have been reported in relation to some factors such as the effect of age, diet and others on its composition and stability. Second, we analyze in detail the functions and composition and the correct functionality of the microbiome in the light of current knowledge. Several studies suggest the importance of preserving the micro-ecosystem of commensal, symbiotic and pathogenic microbes of the respiratory system, and, more recently, its relationship with the intestinal microbiome, and how it also leads to the maintenance of human health, has become better understood.