What Is the "Hydrogen Bond"? A QFT-QED Perspective.

In this paper we would like to highlight the problems of conceiving the "Hydrogen Bond" (HB) as a real short-range, directional, electrostatic, attractive interaction and to reframe its nature through the non-approximated view of condensed matter offered by a Quantum Electro-Dynamic (QED) perspective. We focus our attention on water, as the paramount case to show the effectiveness of this 40-year-old theoretical background, which represents water as a two-fluid system (where one of the two phases is coherent). The HB turns out to be the result of the electromagnetic field gradient in the coherent phase of water, whose vacuum level is lower than in the non-coherent (gas-like) fraction. In this way, the HB can be properly considered, i.e., no longer as a "dipolar force" between molecules, but as the phenomenological effect of their collective thermodynamic tendency to occupy a lower ground state, compatible with temperature and pressure. This perspective allows to explain many "anomalous" behaviours of water and to understand why the calculated energy associated with the HB should change when considering two molecules (water-dimer), or the liquid state, or the different types of ice. The appearance of a condensed, liquid, phase at room temperature is indeed the consequence of the boson condensation as described in the context of spontaneous symmetry breaking (SSB). For a more realistic and authentic description of water, condensed matter and living systems, the transition from a still semi-classical Quantum Mechanical (QM) view in the first quantization to a Quantum Field Theory (QFT) view embedded in the second quantization is advocated.

Quantum Electrodynamics Coherence and Hormesis: Foundations of Quantum Biology.

BACKGROUND: "Quantum biology" (QB) is a promising theoretical approach addressing questions about how living systems are able to unfold dynamics that cannot be solved on a chemical basis or seem to violate some fundamental laws (e.g., thermodynamic yield, morphogenesis, adaptation, autopoiesis, memory, teleology, biosemiotics). Current "quantum" approaches in biology are still very basic and "corpuscular", as these rely on a semi-classical and approximated view. We review important considerations of theory and experiments of the recent past in the field of condensed matter, water, physics of living systems, and biochemistry to join them by creating a consistent picture applicable for life sciences. Within quantum field theory (QFT), the field (also in the matter field) has the primacy whereby the particle, or "quantum", is a derivative of it. The phase of the oscillation and not the number of quanta is the most important observable of the system. Thermodynamics of open systems, symmetry breaking, fractals, and quantum electrodynamics (QED) provide a consistent picture of condensed matter, liquid water, and living matter. Coherence, resonance-driven biochemistry, and ion cyclotron resonance (Liboff-Zhadin effect) emerge as crucial hormetic phenomena. We offer a paradigmatic approach when dealing with living systems in order to enrich and ultimately better understand the implications of current research activities in the field of life sciences.

Effects of Ultra-Weak Fractal Electromagnetic Signals on Malassezia furfur.

Malassezia spp. are dimorphic, lipophilic fungi that are part of the normal human cutaneous commensal microbiome. However, under adverse conditions, these fungi can be involved in various cutaneous diseases. In this study, we analysed the effect of ultra-weak fractal electromagnetic (uwf-EMF) field exposure (12.6 nT covering 0.5 to 20 kHz) on the growth dynamics and invasiveness of M. furfur. The ability to modulate inflammation and innate immunity in normal human keratinocytes was also investigated. Using a microbiological assay, it was possible to demonstrate that, under the influence of uwf-EMF, the invasiveness of M. furfur was drastically reduced (d = 2.456, p < 0.001), while at the same time, its growth dynamic after 72 h having been in contact with HaCaT cells both without (d = 0.211, p = 0.390) and with (d = 0.118, p = 0.438) uwf-EM exposure, were hardly affected. Real-time PCR analysis demonstrated that a uwf-EMF exposure is able to modulate human-ß-defensin-2 (hBD-2) in treated keratinocytes and at the same time reduce the expression of proinflammatory cytokines in human keratinocytes. The findings suggest that the underlying principle of action is hormetic in nature and that this method might be an adjunctive therapeutic tool to modulate the inflammatory properties of Malassezia in related cutaneous diseases. The underlying principle of action becomes understandable by means of quantum electrodynamics (QED). Given that living systems consist mainly of water and within the framework of QED, this water, as a biphasic system, provides the basis for electromagnetic coupling. The oscillatory properties of water dipoles modulated by weak electromagnetic stimuli not only affect biochemical processes, but also pave the way for a more general understanding of the observed nonthermal effects in biota.

Effects of ultra-weak fractal electromagnetic signals on the aqueous phase in living systems: a test-case analysis of molecular rejuvenation markers in fibroblasts.

Skin aging is primarily associated with the alterations in dermal extracellular matrix, in particular a decrease in collagen type-1 content. Recent studies have shown that collagen-degrading matrix metalloproteinase (MMP-1) is produced by fibroblasts in response to chronoaging, which in human dermal fibroblasts leads to the release of proinflammatory cytokines. Past studies showed that anti-inflammatory capabilities could be induced via non-chemical means. One of these methods makes use of ultra-weak fractal electromagnetic (uwf-EM) signals. Such ultra-/very-low frequency (U/VLF) signals (few nT in intensity and within 0.5-30 kHz) interact with aqueous solutions in living systems. The fractal nature of such EM-signals relates to the self-similar property by which a "cut-out" and magnified piece of this signal reveals again the original. Thus, the aim of this study is twofold, to i) investigate the extent of this modulating effect using Human Dermal Fibroblasts (HDF)-cells, and ii) analyse molecular rejuvenation markers therein. We could demonstrate that a 10 min uwf-EM exposure (prior to incubation) increases type-1 collagen and modulates elastin in human fibroblasts cultured up to 96 h, while at the same time reduces IL-6, TNF-α and MMP-1 (the later three being statistically significant). Such up- respectively down-regulation of corresponding genes are strong indicators of an EM-induced hormetic effect that influences the epigenomic landscape of HDFs. In the Appendix, we present, in the framework of Quantum Field Theory (QFT), water as a biphasic liquid and how its coherent fraction can be affected by uwf-EM signals while at the same time resolving the "kT paradox".

Oscillations of ultra-weak photon emission from cancer and non-cancer cells stressed by culture medium change and TNF-α.

Cells spontaneously emit photons in the UV to visible/near-infrared range (ultra-weak photon emission, UPE). Perturbations of the cells' state cause changes in UPE (evoked UPE). The aim of the present study was to analyze the evoked UPE dynamics of cells caused by two types of cell perturbations (stressors): (i) a cell culture medium change, and (ii) application of the pro-inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). Four types of human cell lines were used (squamous cell carcinoma cells, A431; adenocarcinomic alveolar basal epithelial cells, A549; p53-deficient keratinocytes, HaCaT, and cervical cancer cells, HeLa). In addition to the medium change, TNF-α was applied at different concentrations (5, 10, 20, and 40 ng/mL) and UPE measurements were performed after incubation times of 0, 30, 60, 90 min, 2, 5, 12, 24, 48 h. It was observed that (i) the change of cell culture medium (without added TNF-α) induces a cell type-specific transient increase in UPE with the largest UPE increase observed in A549 cells, (ii) the addition of TNF-α induces a cell type-specific and dose-dependent change in UPE, and (iii) stressed cell cultures in general exhibit oscillatory UPE changes.

A Novel Exposure System Termed NAVETTA for In Vitro Laminar Flow Electrodeposition of Nanoaerosol and Evaluation of Immune Effects in Human Lung Reporter Cells.

A new prototype air-liquid interface (ALI) exposure system, a flatbed aerosol exposure chamber termed NAVETTA, was developed to investigate deposition of engineered nanoparticles (NPs) on cultured human lung A549 cells directly from the gas phase. This device mimics human lung cell exposure to NPs due to a low horizontal gas flow combined with cells exposed at the ALI. Electrostatic field assistance is applied to improve NP deposition efficiency. As proof-of-principle, cell viability and immune responses after short-term exposure to nanocopper oxide (CuO)-aerosol were determined. We found that, due to the laminar aerosol flow and a specific orientation of inverted transwells, much higher deposition rates were obtained compared to the normal ALI setup. Cellular responses were monitored with postexposure incubation in submerged conditions, revealing CuO dissolution in a concentration-dependent manner. Cytotoxicity was the result of ionic and nonionic Cu fractions. Using the optimized inverted ALI/postincubation procedure, pro-inflammatory immune responses, in terms of interleukin (IL)-8 promoter and nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) activity, were observed within short time, i.e. One hour exposure to ALI-deposited CuO-NPs and 2.5 h postincubation. NAVETTA is a novel option for mimicking human lung cell exposure to NPs, complementing existing ALI systems.

Effect of Oral Pathway on Charged Particles Deposition in Human Bronchial Airways.

BACKGROUND: In vitro studies to investigate the effect of charged particle deposition in the oral pathway of human adults have demonstrated substantial increases in deposition due to an induced charge effect. In the current study, charged particle deposition in the oral pathway was incorporated in the stochastic human airway generation model IDEAL (Inhalation, Deposition, and Exhalation of Aerosols in the Lung) to quantify their effect on bronchial airways deposition. METHODS: Calculation of increased oral deposition due to charged particles was performed by a modified version of IDEAL for oral pathway, whereas deposition in the bronchial airways was carried out by the already employed efficiency equation. Deposition calculations were performed for 3, 4.5, and 6 µm particles at flow rates of 15 and 30 L/min. RESULTS: The enhancement in deposition is found to be 40 times higher in oral pathway and 6 times higher in bronchial airways for 3 µm size particles carrying 2500 elementary charges. For particles larger than 3 µm, deposition by impaction dominates over deposition by particle charges, and hence higher deposition in oral pathway is observed primarily due to impaction. As a consequence of this increased oral deposition, bronchial airways deposition decreases. CONCLUSION: By controlling breathing, aerosol properties, and electrostatic charge, targeted deposition in the human airways can be improved. Hence, charged particles can therefore be utilized to give better control on regional drug delivery in the lungs or to filter out toxic constituents.

Enhanced Deposition by Electrostatic Field-Assistance Aggravating Diesel Exhaust Aerosol Toxicity for Human Lung Cells.

Air pollution is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases, but conventional air quality monitoring gives no information about biological consequences. Exposing human lung cells at the air-liquid interface (ALI) to ambient aerosol could help identify acute biological responses. This study investigated electrode-assisted deposition of diesel exhaust aerosol (DEA) on human lung epithelial cells (A549) in a prototype exposure chamber. A549 cells were exposed to DEA at the ALI and under submerged conditions in different electrostatic fields (EFs) and were assessed for cell viability, membrane integrity, and IL-8 secretion. Qualitative differences of the DEA and its deposition under different EFs were characterized using scanning mobility particle sizer (SMPS) measurements, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS). Upon exposure to DEA only, cell viability decreased and membrane impairment increased for cells at the ALI; submerged cells were unaffected. These responses were enhanced upon application of an EF, as was DEA deposition. No adverse effects were observed for filtered DEA or air only, confirming particle-induced responses. The prototype exposure chamber proved suitable for testing DEA-induced biological responses of cells at the ALI using electrode-assisted deposition and may be useful for analysis of other air pollutants.

Exposure assessment and associated lung deposition calculations for vehicular exhaust in four metropolitan cities of Pakistan.

Ambient aerosol concentrations along the roadside of metropolitan cities of Pakistan were measured using a Grimm 1.109 dust monitor. Considering the high ambient aerosol concentrations, regional lung deposition of aerosol particles in the human respiratory tract was calculated to assess extent of exposure. Lung deposition was computed in terms of mass concentration and the associated surface area for 12 male traffic wardens using the latest version of the stochastic lung deposition code Inhalation, Deposition, and Exhalation of Aerosols in the Lung. The results have revealed 4 to 10 times higher concentrations than recommended by WHO guidelines. The deposition results derived from the model disclose that extrathoracic deposition is in the range of 22 to 28 % with total lung deposition ranging from 40 to 44 % for the scanned particle window of 0.25-10 µm. Considering an average 8-h shift per day and an average breathing rate of 1.3 m(3) h(-1), it is approximated that in a worker, up to 1.6 mg of inhalable particle mass can deposit per day.

Aerosol size distribution and mass concentration measurements in various cities of Pakistan.

During March and April 2010 aerosol inventories from four large cities in Pakistan were assessed in terms of particle size distributions (N), mass (M) concentrations, and particulate matter (PM) concentrations. These M and PM concentrations were obtained for Karachi, Lahore, Rawalpindi, and Peshawar from N concentrations using a native algorithm based on the Grimm model 1.109 dust monitor. The results have confirmed high N, M and PM concentrations in all four cities. They also revealed major contributions to the aerosol concentrations from the re-suspension of road dust, from sea salt aerosols, and from vehicular and industrial emissions. During the study period the 24 hour average PM(10) concentrations for three sites in Karachi were found to be 461 µg m(-3), 270 µg m(-3), and 88 µg m(-3), while the average values for Lahore, Rawalpindi and Peshawar were 198 µg m(-3), 448 µg m(-3), and 540 µg m(-3), respectively. The corresponding 24 hour average PM(2.5) concentrations were 185 µg m(-3), 151 µg m(-3), and 60 µg m(-3) for the three sites in Karachi, and 91 µg m(-3), 140 µg m(-3), and 160 µg m(-3) for Lahore, Rawalpindi and Peshawar, respectively. The low PM(2.5)/PM(10) ratios revealed a high proportion of coarser particles, which are likely to have originated from (a) traffic, (b) other combustion sources, and (c) the re-suspension of road dust. Our calculated 24 hour averaged PM(10) and PM(2.5) concentrations at all sampling points were between 2 and 10 times higher than the maximum PM concentrations recommended by the WHO guidelines. The aerosol samples collected were analyzed for crustal elements (Al, Fe, Si, Mg, Ca) and trace elements (B, Ba, Cr, Cu, K, Na, Mn, Ni, P, Pb, S, Sr, Cd, Ti, Zn and Zr). The averaged concentrations for crustal elements ranged from 1.02 ± 0.76 µg m(-3) for Si at the Sea View location in Karachi to 74.96 ± 7.39 µg m(-3) for Ca in Rawalpindi, and averaged concentrations for trace elements varied from 7.0 ± 0.75 ng m(-3) for B from the SUPARCO location in Karachi to 17.84 ± 0.30 µg m(-3) for Na at the M. A. Jinnah Road location, also in Karachi.

Stochastic morphometric model of the BALB/c mouse lung.

The laboratory mouse is often used as a human surrogate in aerosol inhalation studies. Morphometric data on the tracheobronchial geometry of three in situ lung casts of the Balb/c mouse lung produced by the Air Pollution Health Effects Laboratory were analyzed in terms of probability density functions and correlations among the different airway parameters. The results of this statistical analysis reveal significant differences in diameters and branching angles between major and minor progeny branching off from the same parent airway at a given airway bifurcation. Number of bronchial airways generations along a given path, expressed by the termination probability, branching angles, and daughter-to-parent diameter ratios indicate that the location of an airway with defined linear airway dimensions within the lung is more appropriately identified by its diameter (or its parent diameter) than by an assigned generation number. We, therefore, recommend classifying the mouse lung airways by their diameters and not by generation numbers, consistent with our previous analysis of the rather monopodial structure of the rat lung (Koblinger et al., J Aerosol Med 1995;8:7­19; Koblinger and Hofmann, J Aerosol Med 1995;8:21­32). Because of lack of corresponding information on respiratory airways, a partly stochastic symmetric acinar airway model was attached to the tracheobronchial model, in which the number of acinar airways along a given path was randomly selected from a measured acinar volume distribution. The computed distributions of the geometric airway parameters and their correlations will be used for random pathway selection of inhaled particles in subsequent Monte Carlo deposition calculations.

Exposure assessment of diesel bus emissions.

The goal of this study was to measure ultrafine particle concentrations with diameters less than 1 mum emitted by diesel buses and to assess resulting human exposure levels. The study was conducted at the Woolloongabba Busway station in Brisbane, Australia in the winter months of 2002 during which temperature inversions frequently occurred. Most buses that utilize the station are fuelled by diesel, the exhaust of which contains a significant quantity of particle matter. Passengers waiting at the station are exposed to these particles emitted from the buses. During the course of this study, passenger census was conducted, based on video surveillance, yielding person-by-person waiting time data. Furthermore, a bus census revealed accurate information about the total number of diesel versus Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) powered buses. Background (outside of the bus station) and platform measurements of ultrafine particulate number size distributions were made to determine ambient aerosol concentrations. Particle number exposure concentration ranges from 10 and 40 to 60% of bus related exhaust fumes. This changes dramatically when considering the particle mass exposure concentration, where most passengers are exposed to about 50 to 80% of exhaust fumes. The obtained data can be very significant for comparison with similar work of this type because it is shown in previous studies that exhaust emissions causes cancer in laboratory animals. It was assumed that significant differences between platform and background distributions were due to bus emissions which, combined with passenger waiting times, yielded an estimate of passenger exposure to ultrafine particles from diesel buses. From an exposure point of view, the Busway station analyzed resembles a street canyon. Although the detected exhaust particle concentration at the outbound platform is found to be in the picogram range, exposure increases with the time passengers spend on the platform along with their breathing frequency.